Project Design      

Proposal to Investigate an Exemplary Practice

1.      What is the problem being studied?

The basic purpose of conducting this literacy research is to find the relative effects of three distinct instructional strategies or approaches, and the casual relationship of the approach to reading rate.  The increase in rate signifies automaticity of word recognition. 

2.      What outcomes are planned?

The researcher plans to observe an increase in student rate of reading in response to advancement in phonological and orthographic awareness.  Also the investigator plans to observe a progression towards competency in using semantics, syntax, and graphophonics, and other phonics skills to solve words; as well as a growing sense of how print works.  Coupled with the aforementioned; planned to be observed is an increased capability in drawing upon prior knowledge.

3.      How is the study related to other work and theories researched?

The study is directly related to the research completed that encompasses the areas termed “whole language” “phonics” and “balanced instruction”.  The attached Review Summary of the Literature document is a comprehensive explanation of work in the domain, and it's direct relation to this investigation.  

back to top

    Design of the Project, what method will be used?

Alternating-treatment design is chosen for the investigation.  The fundamental characteristic of this design is the alternation of three distinct treatments (independent variables) while observing the result of a particular behavior (dependent variable).  In this design the treatments will be alternated randomly and continued until one treatment proves to be more effective than the others, or until it is clear that no method is superior to another.  Interventions are presented randomly to increase the possibility that effects are due to experimental rather than extraneous conditions.  The advantage of this alternating treatment design is that it can be used to compare different approaches relatively quickly, allowing for instructional decision making.  During the experiment, the learner's performance for each treatment will be plotted on a graph, so the effects of the treatments can be discerned easily by visual analysis.  Confounding or interfering variables (internal validity) are controlled by the design of the research.

Major consideration to this investigation is that the design is susceptible to multiple-treatment interference and carry-over effects.  Another caution is that treatments must differ significantly from one another.  They must be distinct from each other.

Materials:  Predictable books leveled at students instructional

reading level, and considered of high interest, with appropriate vocabulary

(books leveled according to Diagnostic Reading Assessment (DRA) score)

SAILS Literary Series by Rigby

Rigby PM Series

                        Poetry Anthologies

                        Letter Cards

                        Open Court Phonics Cards

                        Spaulding Phonogram Cards

                        Self-made Onset-Rime flash cards 

                        Graphs to record data

back to top

5.      What are the independent variables?

The independent variables are the stimulus variables manipulated in this 
experiment to observe the effect upon reading rate of the subjects.  The 
interventions (independent variables) planned for these studies are:

1.      Phonemic Instruction

2.      Meaning Based Instruction

3.      Balanced Instruction

4.      No Instruction

back to top 

The criterion for assessment planned is a score or rate of 
“words read correctly per minute”.  This numbered score will be 
calculated by recording learners words read aloud rate 
(recorded as "per minute”) minus miscues, resulting in the score of 
“words read correctly per minute”.  The resulting score will indicate 
accuracy and automaticity of word recognition.

Operational definitions of the independent variables are as follows:

Definition of Error: Mispronunciations, omissions, substitutions, 
and unknown words will be considered errors, with the exception 
of suffixes such as –ing, -ed, and –s.  Self-corrections will not 
count as errors.  Errors will be those words the student did not 
read correctly within five seconds.

Independent Variables: 

1.      Phonemic Instruction- The instructor teaches and reinforces sound/letter  

associations (included in the passage) with the student, by methods including

phonogram cards used as flashcards.  Student practices sounds aloud and is shown

how sounds are connected to letters and words.  The sounds, letters, and words

are taken directly from the selected passage.  The learner then reads orally the

fifty-word passage to the teacher.  Reading rate is recorded and calculated.  All

other instructional procedures remain unchanged.

back to top

2.      Meaning Based Instruction- Pre-reading discussion is conducted by the following procedure.  Title is read and discussed with the learner.  After predicting the content of the selection, from the title, illustrations are talked about.  Further predictions are made.  One “purpose setting” question is raised, taken from title, illustration, and/or prior knowledge.  The learner then reads orally the fifty-word passage to the teacher.  Reading rate is recorded and calculated in “words correct per minute”.  All other instructional procedures remain unchanged.

o       Lead-In –Title and Prior Knowledge Activation

o       Questioning/Purpose Setting

o       Predicting

o       No phonogram cards

3.      Balanced Instruction- The teacher reads title aloud and discusses both title and illustrations with the learner.  A purpose setting question is generated.  Phonograms are taught via phonogram cards used as flashcards.  To balance instruction, the sounds taught are linked directly to the words in the story while story meaning is discussed.  The learner then reads orally the fifty-word passage to the teacher.  Reading rate is recorded and calculated in “words correct per minute”.  All other instructional procedures remain unchanged.

o       Lead-In – Title and Prior Knowledge Activation

o       Questioning/Purpose Setting

o       Predicting/Discussion of Story Meaning

o       Phonics instruction with flash cards and teacher-directed instruction

  back to top   

4.      No Instruction- In the no pre-reading intervention the learner reads orally the fifty-word passage to the teacher.  Reading rate is recorded and calculated in “words correct per minute”.  All other instructional procedures remain unchanged.

6.      What are the dependent variables?

The dependent variables are the response variables in the experiment that are affected by the manipulation of the independent variables.  Specific to this investigation, the dependent variables are the change in reading rate in response to the interventions.  Dependent variable will be recorded as “words read correctly per minute”.

 back to top

7.      What design will be used?

       Alternating Treatment Design with a Continuing Baseline Condition is the research

       design to be used in the project.  Formatting for the design is taken directly from the

       text, Single Subject Experimental research: Application for Literacy (1995), by

       Neuman and McCormick.  The following bullets highlight the design of this study.

Ø      Operationally define the independent and dependent variables (described in detail above).

Ø      Determine a schedule for counterbalancing the presentation of the treatments across time.

Ø       Days 1 through 10 will consist of introducing interventions of all four varieties in alternating order.

Ø      Continue until there is enough evidence to suggest the effectiveness (or lack of effectiveness) of one intervention over the others.

Ø      A final phase of the study will involve intervention in which only the most effective treatment (as determined by reading rate) is provided.  At this stage, reading rate is expected to continue to improve.

 back to top

8.      What procedures will be followed?

Ø      Baseline data will be determined by recording oral reading only; no previewing (intervention).  Scores will be recorded in “words read correctly per minute”.  Data will be placed onto a graph.

Ø      After acquiring baseline data the following procedures will be introduced at approximately the same time each day.

Ø      Each session will begin with the intervention described, being administered for ten to fifteen minutes between teacher and learner.

Ø      At the end of the prescribed instruction (chosen in random order), the learner will read a fifty (50) word passage that is directly associated with the content of the intervention.  The reading portion will be timed with a stopwatch.

Ø      Words read correctly are determined by subtraction miscues form total words read.  This figure is divided by time of reading to arrive at a “words read correctly rate/minute”.

 back to top

9.      What assessment will be used?

Students will be assessed using a graph to plot progress in reading rate.  Rates will be recorded in “words read correctly per minute”.  The formulas used to determine this score is previously stated above in section number five.  A stop watch and pencil and paper list will be used to time readings and record miscues.  Growth will be determined according to amount of increase in rate, while simultaneously observing and calculating for a decrease in reading miscues.

10.  How is the assessment a valid measure of the effect of the intervention?

Increased reading rate, correlated with an improved decoding ability, is a valid measure of the effect of the intervention.  There is unequivocal support for the critical role of phonological processes in learning to read (Benita A. Blachman, (2000),  Phonological Awareness , Chapter 27 Handbook of Reading Research).  Students with strong skills in phonological processing and knowledge are in a better position to acquire reading skills.  The Handbook of Reading Research shows a reciprocal relationship between early phonological awareness and early literacy acquisition.  Problems with phonological awareness last into adulthood.  The assessment will effectively measure reading ability in relation to individual's phonological awareness knowledge.  Explicit instruction of the connections between sounds and print can teach phonological awareness.

back to top

A “Triangulation of Data” gives the researcher more confidence that the outcomes recorded were indeed a result of the intervention.  This practice gives multiple form of evidence that the independent variable was truly effective.

  Observations will be made to look for desired outcomes.  A checklist will present a sliding scale, rating behaviors that indicate the student is aware that words are made up of individual sounds.

  Interaction between researcher and pupil will serve as subjective data indicating student's desire to read, as well as their self- perception as a reader.  This information will be obtained by oral questionnaires #1,#2, and #3.

  Product Analysis will be provided for through a tape recording of the student's oral reading at different time points throughout the investigation.  Increased reading rate coupled with a decrease in miscues is the expected result of the intervention.  

Running Records will be taken at intervals throughout the study.  An analysis of miscues as well as reading rate will be obtained with these documents.  Three samples of  running records will be taken on each subject.  Each sample will be taken using each of the selected interventions, that is, a running record using the phonics approach, one running record using the meaning-based approach and the third running record using the balanced approach. 

    (Details of these assessments can be found on Thesis Investigation page)

11.  How will the data be analyzed?

Graphing results of reading rate and miscues will determine growth, leveling ability, or a decrease in reading skill.  The visual will allow for a comparison of achievements between the three subjects, as well as a comparison of interventions within individual learners.  Graphing results will provide the researcher with valuable evidence that will enable students to receive the most effective treatment in the final phase of the instructional period.  

Detail of Assessments of Student Progress (triangulation)
A triangulation of data was achieved through the administration of three different questionnaires, a video taping of the students' performance and an audio tape of the students reading. To view samples of the questionnaires click student questionnaires.

back to top

12.  How will the results relate back to other work or theories? 

Results of this investigation will support or not support other researchers on the topic of phonological awareness, and its critical role in learning to read.  It will also revisit the work done by Goodman and others with respect to the need for components of whole-language and their connection to literacy development. The study will continue the work of other investigators to support the belief that all readers need:

1.      The segmental nature of speech

2.      How sound segments are represented in print

3.      The critical role of prior knowledge and its connection to meaning

4.  Components of whole-language (meaning-based approach) as they promote vocabulary development, writing competence, and positive attitudes toward reading and writing.

back to top

Some students will acquire phonological awareness on their own, some will not, therefore, all teachers must know why instruction in sound letter association and other skills under the umbrella called “Phonological Awareness” are critical to success.  As teachers, we must known when and how to provide this instruction.

Other current studies clearly demonstrate the relative superiority of phonics instruction to meaning-based instruction, or no instruction.  The findings of this study might support previous findings that show phonological awareness, which advances into phonics knowledge, as directly related to an improvement in oral reading skills.  Findings may also show support for a balance of intensity between the phonics and meaning-based methods of instruction.

Teachers should be encouraged to investigate the questions addressed through this study proposal.  The methodology is relatively easy to use and can be employed with relatively little interruption of other ongoing classroom practices.

The worth of the balanced literacy approach is enhanced by the ease that it can be incorporated into a class routine.  It lends itself to be easily used with groups, individuals, peers, or student-aide partnerships.  Guided Reading is at the heart of a balanced literacy program.  It shares its importance with other necessary components, the teacher read-aloud, shared reading, shared writing, independent reading and independent writing.

back to top

13.  What are the limitations in the conditions of this experiment?

The results of this study are limited to the performance of these three students at this time and in this place.  As with most worthy research methods, this single subject design requires continuing replication across settings and among different participants.  At this point, we can confidently determine whether or not these three students did benefit from the intervention.  We also can be assured of which intervention was responsible for the most growth in reading rate for each individual. 

A consideration is multiple-treatment interference, which refers to the confounding of effects due to the presence of other treatments and the possibility that the effects of one treatment may be influenced be or carry over to another treatment.  What is evidenced, therefore, is a combination of treatments rather than one treatment alone.  Caution must be taken in the area of multiple-treatment interference.  Independent variables must be carefully selected to avoid this contaminating of one treatment with another.

Reference cited

Kamil, M.L., Mosenthal, P.B., Pearson, P.D., Barr, R. (Eds.)  (2000).  Handbook of Reading Research.  Vol. III.  Mahwah, NJ:  Lawrence Erlbaum.

back to top

Definition of Terms: 

Phonological System – The phonological system is the sound of language.  It is what you hear.  Phonological awareness means hearing the sounds in words.  It is the realization that words are made up of sequences of sounds.

Orthographic System – The orthographic system deals with the form of letters and the spelling patterns within words.  Orthographic awareness is what you see.  It requires visual perception.

Balanced Instruction – Studies point to a number of instructional practices that can promote young children's literacy learning (IRA, 1999).  For any or all these practices to be effective they must fit and respond with the children's needs in learning to read.  Knowing how reading approaches should be combined, and how much time should be devoted to each, is strongly dependent on the individuals in each individual setting.  Balanced Instruction, or also termed Comprehensive Instruction, is based on the aforementioned.  Although research has clearly established that no one method is superior for all children (Bond & Dykstra 1967; Snow, Burns & Griffin 1988, in IRA Position Statement, 1999), approaches that favor some type of systematic code instruction along with meaningful connected reading report children's superior progress in reading.  A Balanced Approach realizes that skilled reading is fluent, accurate word identification.  Simply word calling, often the result of experience in pure phonics instruction only, is not reading.  Reading is comprehension.  A balanced approach incorporates the necessary intensity and best elements of phonics instruction with meaning based instruction.

Phonics teaches students to “decode” with a systematic structured curriculum.  Whole Language stresses the use of whole, uncontrived texts and encourages children to use language in ways that relate to their own lives and cultures.  In a Balanced Instruction Approach children are explicitly taught the relationship between letters and sounds, but they are also reading interesting stories and writing their own.

back to top 

Phonics – A way of teaching reading and spelling that stresses symbol-sound relationships, used especially in beginning instruction (Harris & Hodges, p. 186).  Although phonics helps students gain independence and reliance in reading, it is only one aspect of the reading process.  Phonics instruction may be delivered in many forms, for example,

Explicit phonics – each sound is associated with a letter in the word and individual letter sounds are pronounced in isolation.

Implicit phonics – (also known as Analytic Phonics) does not present sounds associated with letters in isolation, rather, for example, children listen to words that begin with a particular sound and then search for another word that begins with the same sound – “girl, game, get”.

Deasy and Deckers (2001) state three essential components of effective phonics instruction.

1.      Phonemic Awareness – aware of sounds in spoken words

2.      Sound-Letter Associations – discovering the match between sounds and letters in written words

3.      Use of Strategy – transfer of sound/letter knowledge to reading and writing

back to top 

Phonemic Awareness – Phonemic Awareness (P.A.) is the ability to recognize that a spoken word is composed of a sequence of individual sounds (phonemes).  Children who are unaware that words consist of individual sounds will have difficulty in decoding.  Cunningham (2000) defines P.A. as the ability to examine language independently of meaning and to manipulate its component sounds.  P.A. enables children to use letter-sound correspondences to read and spell words.

Next to knowledge of letters, phonemic awareness is a good predictor of children's' first-year reading achievement.  Both knowledge of letters, and P.A., have been found to bear a strong and direct relationship to success and ease of reading acquisition.  This awareness is acquired gradually through experiences with spoken and written language.

Phonological Awareness – Phonological Awareness is the awareness of the sound structure of language in general (Yopp, 2000).  Phonological Awareness is knowing that oral language has a structure that is separate from meaning.  It is attending to the structure “with-in” words.  For example, a student with phonologic awareness understands “beg” has one syllable and three phonemes; “egg” has one syllable and two phonemes.

Phonological Awareness encompasses larger units of sound as well as phonemes, such as syllables and onsets and rimes.  It is the ability to generate and recognize rhyming words, to count syllables, to separate the beginning of a word from it's ending, and to identify each of the phonemes in a word.

 back to top

Guided Reading- This approach has varied definitions as one studies several experts.  Most seem to be in agreement that guided reading is a context in which a teacher supports the reader's development of effective strategies for processing novel texts at increasingly challenging levels of difficulty (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996).  Some advocate for homogeneous grouping according to ability level, some suggest heterogeneous groups (mixed ability levels).  All seem to agree that the role of the reader is to discover the author's meaning (Routman, 1991), and that meaning is the purpose of all reading.

References

Bond & Dykstra 1967; Snow, Burns & Griffin 1988, in IRA Position Statement

(1999)   Using Multiple Methods of Beginning Reading Instruction.  Newark, DE: 

Author.

Cunningham, P.  (2000).  Phonics They Use: Words for Reading and Writing.  New  

York, NY: Longman.

      Deasy, J. & Deckers, J.  (2001).  Field Guide Emergent Literacy.  Unpublished

document.

      Fountas, I.C., & Pinnell, G.S.  (1996).  Guided Reading:  Good first teaching for all children. 

Portsmouth, NH:  Heinemann.

back to top

      Harris, T.L. & Hodges, R.E.  (1995).  The Literacy Dictionary: The Vocabulary of

Reading and Writing.  Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

      International Reading Association.  (1998).  Phonemic Awareness and the Teaching

of Reading.  A Position Statement of the International Reading Association. 

Newark, DE: Author.

      Lyons, C.A. & Pinnell, G.S.  (2001).  Systems for Change in Literacy Education: A

Guide to Professional Development.  Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Neuman, S.B., & McCormick, S. (Eds).  (1995).  Single-subject experimental

      Research:  Applications for Literacy.  Newark, DE: International Reading

   Association.

 back to top

Rose, T.L.  (1984).  The Effects of Two Prepractice Procedures on Oral Reading. 

      Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 544-548.

Routman, R.  (1991).  Invitations:  Changing as Teachers and Learners K-12.  Portsmouth,

NH:   Heinemann.

Yopp, H.K. & Yopp, R.H.  (2000, October).  Supporting Phonemic Awareness

Development in the Classroom.  The Reading Teacher, 54 (2), 130-143.

Data and Graphs

Three Subjects

      All Emergent to Beginning Readers (Beginning Reader also termed as early reader or           

initial reader.  All age 6 at start of investigation.

Interventions (Independent Variables)

      Phonemic Instruction

      Meaning Based Instruction

      Balanced Instruction

      No Instruction

 back to top

Baseline Intervention – “x” no instruction

Passages

      50 words

      Predictable Text

      Poetry Anthologies

      SAILS Literacy Series

      Rigby PM Series

Materials Needed

      Stopwatch  graphs        paper/pencil                 text       phonogram cards

      Tape recorder            checklist            questionnaire               cassettes            Open Court sound cards            Onset/Rime cards (dependable spelling patters)

 back to top

Checklist

Rate behaviors that indicate the student is aware that words are made up of individual sounds.

Oral Questionnaire #1, #2, #3

Question student's desire to read

Question student's self-perception as a reader

Product Analysis

Tape oral Reading every ten sessions during the investigation

Final Phase

Session #26-31 will be dedicated solely to the administration of the most effective treatment.

Student:____________________

The Effects of Three Distinct Interventions on the Rate of Correctly Read Words

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

            5                10              15             20           25             30      35       

Consecutive School Days

back to top

Phonemic Instruction

Meaning Based Instruction

Balanced Instruction

No Instruction

Miscue Tally

Checklist of Observed Behaviors

Rate behaviors that indicate the student is aware that words are made up of individual sounds.  An awareness that language is composed of these small sounds is termed Phonemic Awareness.

Behaviors to Notice/Observe

                              Student K.L.                 Student A.        Student K.M.

                                              Day                                  Day                            Day

                                       10         20        30           10      20      30             10     20      30

§         Pays close attention to print

§         Notices features of letters

and words

§         Notices phonemes, there

existence and ability to be

separated.

§         Able to analyze words into

sounds

§         Able to listen to the sameness,

difference, number, and order

of speech sounds.

§         Uses visual information such

as the first letter of the word

to read known and new words

§         Remembers and uses letter

patterns to decipher text.

§         Solves new words using

knowledge of sound/letter

relationships and word parts

§         Figures out some longer words

by taking them apart

§         Reads for meaning but checks

with the visual aspects of

  print (letters, sounds, words)

back to top

References

         Adams, M.J., Foorman, R.R., Lundberg, I., Beeler, T.  (1998).  Phonemic Awareness in Young

     Children.  Baltimaor, MD: Paul H. Brooks Publishing Co.

Pinnell, G.S.  (2000).  Scholastic Guided Reading Program.  New York, NY:  Scholastic Inc.

Student _________________

Date      _________________

Intervention # ____________

Oral Questionnaire #1

Objective:  To determine students' desire to read and their self-perception as a reader.

1.      What activity do you usually select when given a choice of:  reading, TV, outside play, inside   

       play?

2.      When you engage in literacy, what component do you prefer most?  Rate 1-5 (1 is best).

                        Being read to

                        Reading orally to a friend or audience

                        Writing/Illustrating

                        Listening to books on tape

                        Silent reading

                        Shared reading

3.      Thinking about you highest rated choice from above, how much time do you typically devote

      to this activity?

4        Rate yourself as a reader.  Select the description that best matches you own perception of your

      own ability.

                        10 points.:   I can easily read anything presented to me.

                          8 points.:   I can read most anything presented to me.

                          6 points.:   I need to practice material 2-3 times before I am confident.                           

                          4 points.:   I need guidance and support when reading new material

                          2 points.:   I need instruction in letter/sound relationships, word meaning, and                    

                                            language structure before I can read on my own.

                          0 points.:   I cannot read on my own.                                                                                                                                                          

4.      How do you perceive yourself reading in one month, six months, one year?

I will be an excellent independent reader in _______.

I will be much more independent as a reader in ______.

I will still need support and coaching in ______.                                                                                                                

Oral Questionnaire #2

Name:______________

Date:_______________

Intervention #________

What activity do you think helps your reading rate the most?  In other words, which activity helps you to read the fastest, with the least amount of mistakes?  Rate your choices from 1 to 5, 1 being the most helpful activity.

You feel that you are supported the most when we have:

q       Flashcard practice with sounds

q       Flashcard practice with words and word sorting (the star game)
(phonics)

q       Picture walk through text with lots of discussion
(meaning)

q       Flashcard practice with sounds, word sorting and picture walk
(balanced)

q       No flashcards or picture walk before reading
(no instruction)

Name_____

Date______

Intervention #____

Oral Questionnaire #3

Questions to ask to learn about children's attitudes toward reading:

q       Do you like to read?  Would you rather read than play outside?  Go to the movies?  Watch television?  Play with a friend?

q       What are the times in school when you are really happy?  Is reading one of them?

q       Do you ever notice yourself getting absorbed in reading?  Do you ever feel like you just can't stop reading the book because you enjoy it so much?  Tell me about these times.

q       What is the most important thing about reading?

q       When you are reading, what are you trying to do?

q       When you come to a word you don't know, what do you do?

q       Do you think good readers ever come to a word they don't know?  If yes, what do you think they do?

q       What makes a person a good reader?  Do you want to be a good reader?

q       Do you think you are a good reader now?  Tell me why or why not.

Reference:

Opitz, M.F. & Ford, M.P.  (2001).  Reaching Readers: Flexible & innovative Strategies for Guided Reading. 

Portsmouth, NH:  Heinemann

Taberski, S.  (2000).   On Solid Ground:  Strategies for Teaching Reading K-3.  Portsmouth, NH:  Heinemann.
back to top

Reading Groups Newsletter

     (Student Self Reflection)

(Generated by both students and teacher)

What's Up In Reading Groups?

Here is what I have learned this week.

§       Some things I've done this week are:

§       Three things I've learned are:

§       Skills I've worked on are:

§       Books I've been reading are:

Goals for next week are:
back to top

Student __________

Worksheet

Calculations

 back to top

Student __________

Worksheet

Calculations

 back to top