Applebee, S. N., & Langer. J. A. (1983).
Instructional Scaffolding: Reading and Writing as Natural Language Activities. Language
Arts, 60 (2), 168-177
When teaching reading and writing, the focus would be on specific skills or component skills necessary for language development. Rather than focus on specific skills of reading and writing, the language task is to be completed by the student with instructional support or scaffolding provided to ensure successfully completion of the learning task. The scaffolding provided allows the student to carry out the instructional task while learning new strategies that will lead to him/her accomplishing the task without assistance. Instructional activities would not focus on isolated aspects of the reading and writing skills but on purposeful tasks that would promote language development and thinking skills. Effective activities will need to meet the five criteria: (1) Intentionality: the intended task to be accomplished is a clear and an overall purpose is stated. (2) Appropriateness: Instructional tasks need to be appropriate such that the student can succeed with some additional support. (3) Structure: Modeling and questioning are used that lead to thinking skills and language development. (4) Collaboration: the teacher's role is to give support and constructive responses to students' work to encourage students' efforts. (5) Internalization: Scaffolding is gradually withdrawn as students internalize strategies.
Aulls, M.W. (1985). Understanding the
Relationship Between Reading and Writing. Educational Horizons, 64 (10),
39-44.
Reading
and writing experiences are necessary before the learner acquires the text
structures needed to become proficient in reading comprehension and writing.
Before the learner reads/writes, strategies of planning or purpose
setting are initiated. During
reading/writing, meaning construction strategies of sentence reading/ drafting
are used. After reading/writing, rereading/ revision is employed.
Readers must learn reading strategies to make sense of what is read and
writers must learn writing strategies so that others can make sense of what is
written.
Baker, C. (1984) Writing for Reading:
Listening to the Flip Side. Paper
presented at the1983 Thirteenth Annual Reading
Conference.
Terre Haute, ID. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED
241 903.)
Teachers
of reading must be also teachers of writing.
As a teacher of reading, writing provides the analysis and diagnosis of
reading ability. When a student has
reading difficulties, writing is a significant indicator the reading disability.
Some reading problems such as a learning disability, dialect problem,
grammar and syntax difficulties, reading vocabulary, and reading comprehension
are identified through writing activities.
In other words, a student's writing process reveals his/her strengths
and weaknesses in the area of reading. Specific
writing assignments such as summaries, inductive and deductive writing, critical
thinking writing assignments, character sketches, author's style and purpose
writings will enhance a student's reading ability. Teachers should be
encouraged to integrate reading and writing assignments in all content areas of
the curriculum.
Barrs, Myra (2000). The Reader in the
Writer. Reading (United Kingdom Reading Association),
July, 54-60.
[Abstract]
Beach, R.(1998). Writing about Literature: A
Dialogic Approach. In Nelson, N. & R.Calfee (Eds.). The
Reading and Writing Connection
(pp.229-248). The Ninety-Seventh Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education (Part II).Chicago, IL: The National
Society for
the Study of Education.
In
a dialogic reading and writing approach, students use writing to develop
questions about texts that focus on conflicts, tensions, perspectives, voices,
and contradictions, which evolve from their literary experiences.
Not only do readers work within contexts but they also bring contexts to
their reading. Students need to
learn how to cite information from the text as well as how to relate their own
experiences to texts. They write various responses that can mimic, extend,
recreate or parody the text.
Boutwell, M. (1983) Reading and Writing
Process: A Reciprocal Agreement. Language Arts,
60 (6), 723-730.
Teachers
should provide opportunities for students to understand the reading /writing
connection or reciprocal agreement between the student becoming the reader and
the writer. The writer-as-reader strategy is an important process in writing.
The student would switch back and forth from writer to reader and reader
to writer. As the writer, the student would construct meaning in the
written prose and as the reader; the student would re-read to be sure that the
text made sense. If not, the student would revise.
The reader-as-writer strategy would be applied to reading text; the
student would need to construct meaning from the author's intended meaning. If
incorrect, the student would have to revise his/her reading by rethinking and
clarifying the meaning of the text for him/her as a reader.
Students need to be aware of the strategies that apply to both reading
and writing.
Brooks, G. (1988). Exploring the World Through Reading and Writing. Language Arts,65 (3), 245-253.
Reading
and writing are similar but they are different learning experiences. When a
student reads, he/she makes predictions, constructs meaning, and struggles to
understand the text. When a student
writes, he/she develops a new text using prior knowledge, imagination and other
resources. Teachers need to engage students in reading and writing activities
simultaneously and integrate them into instruction in order for learning to
occur. Writing needs to be genuine
in which students are thinking and rethinking as they write. Literature should
provide experiences that can be explored through reading and writing.
Calfee, R. (1998). Leading Middle Grade
Students from Reading to Writing: Conceptual and Practical
Aspects. In Nelson, N. & R.
Calfee
(Eds.). The Reading and Writing
Connection (pp.203-228). The Ninety-Seventh Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education
(Part II). Chicago, IL: the National Society for the Study of
Education.
Instructional
time in the primary grades is focused on reading and less time on writing and in
the high school grades, students are expected to read and produce written
assignments that include critical analysis, and grammatical and compositional
skills. How is the reading-writing connection taught in the middle grades to
prepare students for high school? The separation of reading and writing in the
middle grades is apparent in the content in which they study.
A Conceptual Framework is a social-cognitive analysis of literacy
instruction and acquisition as a foundation for the reading-writing connection.
The CORE framework includes 1) Connection: connect the student's prior
knowledge and experiences; (2) Organization: information is organized into
patterns and is structured for learning; (3) Reflection: information is
discussed and reflected upon then applied to new situations; (4) Extension:
information is refined and transferred to other complex tasks.
The CORE framework is used to transfer from reading to writing that is to
focus on the role of the text and the process of writing.
Cobine, Gary. (1995). Writing as a Response to Reading. ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 386 734.)
The relationship between reading and writing needs to exist together not as separate ideas, but exist in relation to each other. They need to be taught together to accommodate all reading styles, i.e. to aid in organizing, clarifying, and refining thoughts and ideas. Implementing writing while reading through reading logs would allow the reader to respond to the text and/or to discover ideas in a “response journal”, to rethink ideas in a “text-to-meaning journal”, and regulate reading through self-monitoring writing in a “process journal”.
Cohn, M. (1984). Observations of Learning to
Read and Write Naturally. In J. M.
Jensen (Ed.). Composing and Comprehending (pp.
143-150).
Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers
of English.
Reading
and writing can develop in the same natural way as spoken language.
Learning to read naturally begins when parents read to their young
children. They make the connection
that reading can be as meaningful as oral language and to communicate ideas to
others their own language needs to “talk” which becomes written language.
The progression of the reading and writing stages need to be nurtured
accepted and understood by parents and teachers.
Crowhurst, M. (1991). Interrelationship
Between Reading and Writing Persuasive Discourse. Research
in the Teaching of English, 25 (3),
314-335.
[Abstract]
Dionisio, M. (1983). “Write? Isn't this Reading Class?” The Reading Teacher, 36 (8),746-750.
When
reading is approached through writing both skills benefit. Students should be
writing on a regular basis and choosing topic of their own interest.
This will encourage reading for information about the topics such that
more knowledge is gained and incorporated into their writing.
Also, when reading to expand writing, aids in reading comprehension.
Students remember information more readily when they directly used that
information in their writing. Reading
to edit is important part in the writing process. Students need time to read their writing for correct usage of
language conventions and conveying the author's intended meaning.
Students in this class were using reading and writing as a “unified
tool” for learning.
Eckhoff, B. (1983). How Reading Affects
Children's Writing. Language Arts, 60 (5), 607-616.
[Abstract]
Goodman, K., & Goodman, Y. (1983). Reading and Writing Relationships: Pragmatic Functions. Language Arts, 60 (5), 590-599.
The
development of reading and writing is in relation to their specific functions
and use. Readers construct meaning
through forms, conventions, and styles of the written text, as they become more
proficient readers. Writers must
read and reread while writing to ensure that the text is comprehensible for the
intended audience. The students'
schema for predicting texts in reading is essentially the same as those used in
constructing texts during writing. Literacy
development needs to explicitly present the relationship between reading and
writing. Students need to view
themselves as readers and writers to build knowledge about the forms and
functions of the language. Teachers
need to understand that students have already been exposed to a literate
environment such that the curriculum should be developed which expands on the
students' knowledge and experiences. Teachers
need to provide a literacy environment where the students know that they are
being involved in reading and writing.
Haneline, D., & Aiex, N. (1997). Asking
the Right Questions: Reading Assignments That
Work for Writing. ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse
on Reading, English, and
Communication. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 409 534.)
Reading
is not only decoding, it involves students taking information and taking
ownership of it. Reading logs is one teaching strategy that helps students
improve their reading and writing skills. Reading
logs can encourage a reader to discover and/or rethink ideas and respond in
writing to literature. When writing
is initiated while reading, student's thoughts can become more organized,
clarified, and refined. Through reading and writing activities, students will
learn more about their own reading and writing abilities, which can lead to more
possibilities in their own working and personal lives.
Heller, M. (1991). Reading-Writing
Connections From Theory to Practice. White Plains, NY:
Longman.
The
studies of the influence of reading on writing support the theory that
development in one area will carry over into the other.
The knowledge and understanding of text structure, genre, and basic forms
of discourse such as narrative, description, persuasion and poetry are important
to the interactive models of reading and writing.
Both reading and writing involve the similar cognitive processes during
the activities of comprehension and composing.
Before reading the text, a reader prepares by comprehending by developing
a purpose and activating prior knowledge for reading.
Before writing, the writer prepares to write by developing a purpose and
using prior knowledge about the topic. Thus,
prereading and prewriting are essential to the process of reading and writing.
While reading /writing, the reader/writer is involved in both
intellectually and emotionally reconstructing/constructing meaning of the text.
The social aspects of reading and writing express the ideas and thoughts
that one is communicating through language. The classroom learning environment
that incorporates the integration of reading and writing is crucial to literacy.
In the classroom, teachers need to make efficient use of the
instructional time connecting reading and writing.
Students need time to read and write connected text and instruction
should involve authentic reading and writing activities.
Holt, S. L. & Vacca, J. L. (1984).
Reading with a Sense of Writer: Writing with a Sense of
Reader. In J. M. Jensen (Ed.). Composing and
Comprehending (pp. 177-181). Urbana,
IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Reading and writing are interdependent processes that are essential to each other and mutually beneficial for one another. The relationship between reading and writing is based on communication. If reading and writing are to be communicative then the reader needs to reading with the sense of a writer and the writer needs to write with the sense of the reader. A reader needs to construct meaning from the text and make sense of what the writer is communicating the same as the writer needs to develop meaning through the text and make sure that his/her message is clear and understood by the reader. The reading and writing process involves thinking, action, and interaction. Children need to develop their communication skills by having the opportunity to read and write in the classroom. Students should make the connection that other students will be reading their writing and they will be reading other student's writing. Thus, students read better with the sense of the writer and write better with the sense of the reader.
Kurcer, S.L. (1985). The Making of Meaning:
Reading and Writing as Parallel Processes. Written
Communication,2 (3), 317-336.
Both
reading and writing are processes of making meaning. The Text World Production model integrates the reading and
writing processes by describing (1) the procedures utilized by readers/writers
in accessing prior knowledge or schemata; (2) the cognitive strategies a
reader/writer is engaged in when transforming prior knowledge into a text world,
and (3) the function of context in the process of locating and retrieving
information. Teachers need to
parallel the language used in reading instruction with the language used in
writing instruction. Both reading
and writing activities would enhance the language of the other and support
literacy development. The literacy
curricula would maximize the interrelationship between reading and writing and
facilitate students' growth in the basics of literacy.
Lee, I. A (2000). Touch of …Class!
Exploring Reading-Writing Connections Through Pedagogical
Focus on ‘Coherence'. Canadian Modern
Language Review,57 (2), 352-357.
Reading
and writing are found to have a connection.
The pedagogical view of coherence is thought to enhance comprehension and
teach writing strategies. This
paper presents six teaching elements: (1) Purpose, audience, and context of
situation, (2) Macrostructure, i.e. structure of the text, (3) Information
distributed, i.e. the distribution of information in a text, (4) Propositional
development, i.e. the development of ideas, (5) Cohesion, i.e. the use of
cohesion in text, and (6) Metadiscourse, i.e. linguistic devices in texts.
Reading and writing need to be presented as integrated skills. The pedagogy of
coherence presents the relationship between reading and writing in which reading
is the necessary contributor to the students' writing skills.
Mathison, M. (1998). Students as Critics of
Disciplinary Texts. In Nelson, N. & R. Calfee (Eds.). The
Reading and Writing Connection
(pp.249-265). The Ninety-Seventh Yearbook
of the National Society for the Study of Education (Part II). Chicago, IL: The
National Society
for the Study of Education.
Students
in the role of a critic produce a form of writing that is based on reading.
Students' written critiques are different in various disciplines such
as humanities, natural sciences, and social studies.
When a student critiques a text, he/she first needs to present an
understanding of the text through summarization.
Second, a student needs to evaluate the source text.
Third, a student needs to justify their analysis with evidence.
Lastly, a student needs to connect the validity of the text's knowledge
to the sociological community. Teachers
need to teach critiquing, so that students have opportunities to identify the
author's major points, analyze assumptions, examine the evidence the author
provides, engage in the issues the author presents, persuade others to support
or reject the author's point of view, examine other's opinions, and develop
their own insights. Students need
to understand that reading and writing critically about texts enhances their
literacy development.
Mayo, L. (2000). Making the Connection:
Reading and Writing Together. English
The reading and writing connection needs to be made explicit. Teachers need to provide students with the opportunities to respond to literature as a reader as well as examine the writer's style to see what evoked the reader's response. Being able to read on a critical level is vital to reading and writing. Students need to analyze the text and use the author's style into their own writing. Using shorter texts or a text that a student can visualize him/her writing and being able to study and talk about the writing is the key to success in bringing reading and writing together in the classroom. Teachers need to encourage students to experience reading like writers so that they can internalize the quality and structure of good writing. Thus, students will be able to write better and read with an understanding of the author's intent.
McGee, L. M. & Richgels, D. J. (1990). Learning from Text
Using Reading and Writing. In T. Shanahan. (Ed.). Reading
and Writing Together:
New Perspectives for the
The
five characteristics of reading-writing learning strategies are: (1) learning
consists of critical thinking, analysis, reasoning and understanding, (2) using
revision to evaluate meaning, (3) fostering student's prior knowledge, (4)
personal involvement, and (5) promoting students' responses through feelings.
Reading and writing strategies that illustrate the characteristics of
critical understanding and revision are Dialogical Reading and Writing, Letter
to the Editor, Extended Writing about Literature and Extended Writing about
Content. The strategies of Guided
Writing Procedure and KWL are examples of the characteristic of promoting
students' use of prior knowledge. The
strategies of Self-selected Trade Books, Identifying with the Character, and
Extended Writing from Different Perspectives are examples of the characteristic
of students' personally involved with reading and writing.
The strategy of Response to Content is an example of the characteristic
of students' responding using their feelings.
Teachers have an important role in giving students' opportunities to
learn through reading and writing strategies
McGinley, W. (1992).
The Role of Reading and Writing while Composing from Sources.
Reading Research Quarterly, 27(3), 226-247.
[Abstract]
Miller, B. L. (1982). Reading and
Writing: Is There a Connection? (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 227 477.)
Since
reading and writing are language processes, they should be learned together.
Many of the skills acquired in learning to read can be applied when
learning to write. The integration
of reading and writing should be in a natural way that is to construct meaning
in everyday situations. Children
need to be exposed to the integrative relationship between reading and writing.
Together teachers and children should learn new information through
reading and writing activities. Children
need to find out their interests through reading and writing.
Spelling, punctuation, and grammar are learned through reading and need
to be reflected in writing. Ideas
for compositions are developed through reading, dialogue, and interaction with
others. Students need to be given
opportunities to read and practice composing to develop specific aspects of
reading and writing. Students must
be active participants in reading and writing processes.
Children learn to read by reading and write by writing.
Mills, Editha. (1974). Children's Literature and Teaching Written Composition. Elementary English, 51,971-973.
A
longitudinal study was conducted during 1968-1972 using the children's
literature for teaching composition to third graders in an elementary school in
Georgia. Written Composition K-3, A guide for Teaching curriculum
was utilized for the teaching goals and objectives. Lessons were developed and
taught to improve composition skills and time was devoted to listening before
writing. Each week a half-hour lesson for twenty-four weeks was taught by using
literature to teach composition. Emphasis was placed upon the enjoyment of
reading and what the literature could do as a model to help improve writing
skills. Students were tested using the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. Students
scored significantly higher in the Iowa Test of Basic Skills subtests of
vocabulary, reading, usage, and composite. Teachers commented that students'
attitude toward writing was positive and the production and quality of the
writing was improved. The principal
commented that the third grade students were far superior in skills of
composition using the Written Composition curriculum compared to the fifth grade
class using the traditional approach.
Moffett, J. (1983). Reading and Writing as
Meditation. Language Arts, 60 (3), 315-322.
Our
stream of consciousness is something that reading and writing share.
When reading, the text structures are the stream of consciousness for the
reader. It engages emotions,
memory, and imagination through the mind that elicits a response.
When writing, the writer is modifying his/her own inner speech, thoughts,
memories, and ideas. It is not
merely writing everything down, it is composing connections of the writer's
thoughts for an intended audience and purpose.
Reading and writing control inner speech by allowing a text to structure
it or by structuring it to create a text. Everything
in a text is meditated by the reader's conscious intelligence.
Meditation on reading and writing can lead to witnessing
the inner stream, that is the concentration for the process of reading/
writing without altering it; or it can focusing
the inner stream, that is become conscious of it through emotion, perception,
memory, and reason; or it can suspending it,
that is to stop the flow of consciousness so that it becomes altered.
Meditation works together with the text; it may follow reading or it may
generate writing.
Morris, D. (1984). Concept of Word: A
Developmental Phenomenon in the Beginning Reading and
Writing Processes. In J. M. Jensen
(Ed.).
Composing and Comprehending (pp.
115-124). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
The
concept of the word needs to be presented in reading and writing.
In reading, the reader develops the concept of the word through choral
reading of shared-book experiences. The
students need to be exposed to finger-point reading and word identification. In
writing, the writer gains awareness of learning how spoken language is put into
written words through the act of dictated experience stories.
The beginning reading/writing relationship is mutually facilitative. In
other words, growth in one area (reading) is reflected in and reinforced in the
other (writing). Students need to
have an opportunity to practice reading and writing activities to experience and
understand the reading and writing connection.
Nathan, R. & Temple, C.
(1990). Classroom Environments for Reading and Writing Together.
In T. Shanahan. (Ed.). Reading and Writing
Together: New Perspectives for
The
emphasis in the classroom is to implement a curriculum that connects reading
with writing. Teachers need to
teach children to read and write, not only to teach them the skills and process,
but the engage them in a community filled with readers and writers.
To establish this kind of environment, teachers need to (1) model reading
and writing, (2) classroom routines need to involve daily reading and writing
activities, and (3) classrooms need to be rich in ideas, books, and connected to
the world. Also, connections need to be made across the disciplines that
encourage reading and writing opportunities.
Nelson, N.(1998). Reading and Writing
Contextualized. In Nelson, N. & R. Calfee (Eds.). The
Reading and Writing Connection
(pp.266-285).
The Ninety-Seventh Yearbook
of the National Society for the Study of Education (Part II). Chicago, IL: The
National Society for the Study of
Education.
The
constructive processes that develop meaning are apparent through the reading and
writing connection. The processes of reading and writing appear concurrently in
a literate person. All literate persons are readers and writers, constructing
meaning for the text in which they read and meaning for the text in which they
write. The identity of being a
reader/writer is the social relationship with other literate persons.
Nelson, N. & Calfee, R. (1998).
The Reading-Writing Connection Viewed Historically. In
Nelson, N. & R. Calfee (Eds.). The Reading and
Writing Connection
(pp.1-52). The Ninety-Seventh Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education (Part II). Chicago, IL:
The
National Society
for the Study of Education.
Historically
reading and writing were separate in education. They were taught as separate subjects in the school system in
the United States. This chapter
presents a history of literacy in American education from colonial times to the
twentieth century. It focuses on
the different levels of education, that is elementary, secondary and college.
During the 1970-1998 there were five influential movements that had
supported the reading-writing connection. (1) Comprehension and Composition as
construction: reading and writing develop concurrently, (2) Reader Response:
readers respond to text in writing, (3) The writing Process and process writing:
through the writing process the student moved to and from the role of the reader
and writer, (4) Whole Language: all modalities of language are used in a
holistic, natural situation, and (5) Discourse Communities: the role of author
and audience are adopted by members in a community.
Rabideau, Dan. (1993). Integrating Reading
and Writing into Adult ESL Instruction. ERIC Digest.
Washington, D.C.: National Clearinghouse on
Literacy Education. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED 358 749.)
Reading
and writing play a major role in the language instruction for adult ESL
learners. Today, the emphasis is on
the implementation of reading and writing in ESL instruction in addition to the
learning of oral English. The
teaching of reading and writing in an ESL program needs to be influenced by
learners' various language proficiencies, backgrounds, and needs.
The goal of instruction is to draw on the native language of the learner
and implement a reading and writing curriculum that will meet the learners'
needs. Thus, reading and writing activities need to be instructed in the ESL
curriculum by using the learner's native language in order to learn how to
speak, read, and write in English.
Raphael, T.E., Kirschner, B. W., &
Englert, C. S. (1988). Expository Writing Program: Making
Connections between Reading and Writing. The
Reading Teacher,41(7) 790-795.
The
Expository Writing Program (EWP) is designed to help students learn about the
writing process. In the first stage, students are introduced to the different
structures and processes of writing using their own experiences. In the second
stage, connections are made to reading as students learn to apply writing
strategies when gathering information from expository text and write in the
content areas. Student sample
writings are used to identify text structure in written text. The teacher guides the students to gather critical
information instead of copying the text word for word.
Students are encouraged to use prior knowledge and other text sources to
elaborate on the information. The
EWP is effective because students learn the strategies used by authors of
informational text, apply the strategies in their own writing, and through
participation in the writing process learn to read critically and monitor the
clarity of the text they are reading whether or not they themselves are the
authors.
Rosenblatt,
L. (1994). The Transactional Theory of Reading and Writing. In Ruddell,
R.
models
and processes of reading, 4thed.
(pp. 1057-1092). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Reading
is an integral part of the writing process. The reader/writer makes meaning of a
new situation by applying, reorganizing, revising, or extending components from
his/her existing schema. The reader and writer have a transaction with the text.
The meaning is not found in the text but occurs when the reader/writer
transacts with the text. During
reading, the reader transacts with the text to construct meaning.
The reader's purpose or stance affects the meaning of the text.
The reader takes a stance while reading; it could be an efferent stance,
that is the information learned from the text or an aesthetic stance, that is
the emotions that arise while reading. During
writing, the writer is transacting with his/her personal, social, and cultural
environment. The writer's stance
is either an efferent stance, that is writing presenting information or an
aesthetic stance, that is writing that conveys emotions.
The writer will transact with the text by rereading it as though he/she
is reading it through the eyes of his/her intended audience for its lucidity,
content, syntax and purpose. The
interconnectedness of reading and writing is closer than the fact that each can
serve as a support to the other. The
writer discovers the need to read in order to enhance knowledge and experience,
and the reader is influenced to write to record, express, and clarify ideas and
thoughts that flow from reading. The
teaching of reading and writing should be the development of an environment and
activities in which students are motivated and encouraged to draw on their own
resources to make real meaning. Readers
and writers need to understand their transactional relationship to each other by
peer reading and discussion of text. The
teacher needs to become the facilitator of the interconnection of reading and
writing among students.
Shafer, G. (2000). Reading and Writing in
the Developmental English Class. English
The
reading-writing connection is an active, personal process.
Both reading and writing are necessary for social reasons.
The teacher's goal is to bring authentic participation and engagement
to both reading and writing in the form of letters.
Students in the Developmental English class had the opportunity to write
as an imaginary character, “Taloola” and throughout the year their stories
would be developed through letter writing.
They composed original writing and read it aloud to have it critiqued by
their peers. Through letter reading, editing of incorrect usage of language
conventions was done. Students
became readers and writers when reading was allowed to develop along with
writing.
Shanahan, T.(1984). Nature of the
Reading-Writing Relation: An Exploratory Multivariate
Analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76 (3),
466-477.
The
purpose of this study was to conduct an exploratory analysis of the relationship
of learning to read and write. The
reading-writing relationship is compared between grade levels (second and fifth)
and achievement levels (beginning readers and advanced readers).
Multiple reading and writing measures were administered over a five-week
period. The results found that reading and writing were significantly
related at both the second and fifth grade levels. However, there were significant differences in the findings
across the reading level groups that suggest that the reading-writing
relationship changes with reading development.
Shanahan, T. (1988). The Reading-writing Relationship: Seven Instructional Principles. The Reading Teacher, 41 (7), 636-647.
Seven
instructional principles are presented that explain how reading and writing can
be integrated through instruction. Principle 1: Teach both reading and writing.
Teachers should provide daily integration of reading and writing
instruction so that students will have the opportunity to read literature and
write in response to their reading.
Shanahan, T.(1997). Reading-Writing
Relationships, Thematic units, Inquiry Learning…in
pursuit of effective integrated literacy instruction. The
Reading
Literacy
instruction needs to integrate reading and writing within thematic units.
Teachers need to understand the connection of reading and writing in
order for it to be implemented in the curriculum. Since reading and writing
depend on the same cognitive learning processes, then cross-learning
opportunities in reading and writing need to be available. By
adding reading and writing to the curriculum doesn't guarantee improvement in
learning; however, reading and writing need to be combined successfully to be
effective in learning literacy. It
is essential when planning for integrated instruction to have the following: 1)
knowledge of the intention of instruction, so that desired outcomes will be
accomplished, 2) focus on the separate disciplines to produce “maximum
cross-curricular benefits”; and 3) the combination of social and cultural
aspects in the curriculum, that is readers and writers need to be aware of how
writers think, speak, and write. Also,
integrated instruction will foster better attitudes towards learning.
Integrated instruction is successful when it encourages students to make
connections between reading and writing within thematic units and when students
are given instruction, guidance, and practice through the context of meaning.
Shanahan, T., & Lomax, R.G. (1986). An
Analysis and Comparison of Theoretical Models of the
Reading-Writing Relationship. Journal of Educational Psychology, 78
(2), 116-123.
[Abstract]
Shanahan, T., & Lomax, R.G. (1988). A
Developmental Comparison of Three Theoretical Models of
the Reading-Writing Relationship. Research
in the Teaching of
[Abstract]
Smagorinsky, P., & O'Donnell-Allen, C.
(1998). Reading as mediated and mediating action:
Composing meaning for literature through multimedia
interpretive texts. Reading Research
Quarterly, 33 (2), 198-226.
[Abstract]
Smith, C. B., & Dahl, K. L. (1984).
Teaching Reading and Writing Together: The
This
book presents classroom strategies and specific activities that connect reading
and writing in a natural way. The
first chapter provides information about the reading-writing connection.
The general statement that is commonly stated is that those who read well
usually write well and those who write well usually read well.
To bring the reading and writing connection together, processes of
thinking and constructing meaning need to be developed.
Readers need to write about what they are reading, so that they can
appreciate the words and style of the author they are reading, by written
reactions or summaries. Through
writing in response to reading, the reader can identify whether or not he/she is
communicating with the author. The
curriculum needs to present students with reading and writing activities.
The common instructional steps in reading/writing instruction are (1)
prereading/prewriting: to draw on prior knowledge and experiences; (2)
reading/writing with intention: to establish purpose; (3) summarizing/revision;
to summarize what has been read/ to revise written text to communicate with the
intended audience.
Smith, F. (1983). Reading Like a Writer. Language
Arts, 60 (5), 558-567.
In
order for children to learn to write, they must read to gain the conventions of
writing that could not be taught in formal instruction.
Students need to read a variety of genres in order to gain knowledge of
the author's intent, which will influence what is being written.
He believes to learn how to write poetry, students need to read poems and
discuss them in terms of structure and author's purpose, which can't be
learned in a textbook. Thus,
students must learn to read like a writer in order to write like a writer and be
able to see themselves as readers and writers.
Teachers need to teach the students how to write through the use of
literature and not teach them about writing.
Sperling, M. (1998) Teachers as Readers of
Students' Writing. In Nelson, N. & R. Calfee
(Eds.). The Reading and Writing
Connection
(pp.131-152). The Ninety-Seventh Yearbook
of the National Society for the
Study of Education (Part II). Chicago, IL: The National
Society
for the Study of Education.
Teachers
respond to student's writing by assuming different roles, reading for
different purposes, and responding in various voices.
The teacher responds/comments to student's writing verbally in
one-to-one conversations and on student's papers.
The dialogic model of instruction includes: (1) the teacher assigning a
written composition; (2) students think, read, talk, and write; (3) the teacher
and peers read, think, talk, and respond; and (4) students rereads, thinks,
talks, and rewrites. In this way,
the students understand the interconnected relationship between reading and
writing.
Spivey, N. N., & King, J.R. (1989).
Readers as Writers Composing from Sources. Reading Research
Quarterly,24 (1), 7-26.
[Abstract]
Squire, J. R. (1983). Composing and
Comprehending: Two Sides of the Same Basic Process. Language
Arts, 60 (5), 581-589.
Composing
and comprehending are process-oriented thinking skills, which are interrelated.
When composing and comprehending are not taught as processes, it
obstructs the teaching of reading, writing, and thinking to students. An
effective literacy curriculum that ensures composing and comprehending skills
needs to have the following:
Stosky, S. (1983). Research on Reading/Writing Relationships: A Synthesis and Suggested Directions. Language Arts, 60 (5), 627-643.
Correlational and Experimental Research
studies on the reading/writing relationship are summarized in this paper.
Correlational studies were divided into three categories:
(1) Correlating measures of reading achievement with measures of writing
ability. Researchers found a high
correlation between reading scores and rating of writing quality in the upper
grades, thus the relationship between reading and writing improved as the
students reached the upper grades. (2)
Correlating measures of reading achievement with measures of writing ability.
Researchers found a significant relationship between reading
/comprehension and writing quality. (3) Correlating measures of reading ability
with measures of syntactic complexity in students' compositions. Significant
correlations were found between the combination of syntactic measures to predict
reading achievement (fluency) and the use of complex syntactic structures.
Experimental
Research studies that examined the influence of reading upon writing:
No studies could be found to support this theory.
(2) Studies that attempted to improve writing through reading
instruction, the use of literary models or additional reading experiences.
Three studies revealed that additional reading was effective in improving
writing. Students who read
additional literature improved in grammar, usage, and wrote better compositions
compared to those students who were taught formal grammar and usage.
Another study found that children who read and discussed literature as a
pre-writing activity scored significantly higher on the Iowa
Test of Basic Skills in their writing compared to the group that didn't
use literature in this fashion. Another
study found significant results in both reading and writing ability, which
examined the effects on student's expository writing of highly structured
English course, which correlated reading instruction with writing instruction.
In conclusion, the correlational studies presented consistent results of
a significant correlation between reading and writing.
From the research studies, the reading experience seems to be consistent
correlation of, or influence on writing ability.
Future research is needed on the relationship between reading and writing
in order to guide curriculum development.
Taylor, B. M., & Beach, R. W. (1984).
The Effects of Text Structure Instruction on Middle-grade
Students' Comprehension and Production of
Expository Text. Reading Research
Quarterly, 19 (2), 134-173.
[Abstract]
Teale, W. H. (1984). Toward a Theory of How
Children Learn to Read and Write Naturally.
In J. M. Jensen (Ed.). Composing and
Comprehending (pp. 127-142).Urbana, IL: National
Council of Teachers of English.
Natural literacy development is dependent on the experiences the child has in reading and writing occurrences that are encouraged and implemented by literate adults. Reading and writing activities are essential to the child's learning to read and write. Reading and writing development is the interaction between the literate adult and the child through literacy-speech activities. The literate adult should scaffold storybook reading, where the adult highlights specific aspects of the written language through questioning with the child, so that the child will become more capable of “reading” on her/his own. Reading and writing opportunities and the speech that accompanies them are a significant aspect of becoming literate naturally.
Tierney, R. J. (1990). Learning to Connect
Reading and Writing: Critical Thinking Through
Transactions with One's Own Subjectivity. In T.
Shanahan. (Ed.). Reading and
Publishers.
In
this chapter, Mr. Robert Tierney reviews his two decades of research on the
theory of reading and writing. He
began his research on reading comprehension that is he explored the relationship
between the text and how the reader reflected/responded upon the text.
This research prompted additional investigations into the relationship
between the reader and the author. Then
the theory of the reader as a writer emerged.
More studies investigated the theory of the relationship between reading
and writing, which lead to the research of the effects of reading, and writing
upon thinking. Mr. Tierney claims
the theory of reading-writing connection does promote learning and teachers need
to provide children with opportunities to learn information through
reading-writing activities.
Tierney, R. J.(1992). Ongoing Research and
New Directions. In J. Irwin & M. Doyle (Eds.). Reading/Writing
Connections: Learning From
Research. (pp.246-260). Newark. DE:
International Reading Association.
Historically,
research work on reading/writing connection was scarce.
During the 1960s reading and writing instruction were taught separately.
In the 1970s and 1980s, researchers and educators were curious of the
impact of the reading/writing connection. A
number of studies and articles were written and these studies appeared in a wide
variety of journals and came from several different disciplines with education
and psychology being the most prominent. The research of the relationship of reading and writing
revealed that when reading and writing occurred together in collaboration, then
both thinking and learning were enhanced. In
other words, reading is connected to writing, reading and writing work in
“synergy”, and the integration of reading and writing implements a process
oriented approach and offers more in the way of collaborative activities.
Tierney, R. J., Caplan,R., Ehri, L., Healy,
M., & Hurlow, M. (1989). Writing and Reading Working
Together. In A. H. Dyson (Ed.).
Collaboration through Writing and
To improve students' literacy development, reading-writing activities should be integrated in the curriculum. When reading and writing are working together in the classroom, students' learning is developed. Students' relationship with authors develops when reading and writing are interrelated. Students' writing reflect the author's style in the books, which they have read or listened to. Students will synthesize ideas, and characters from the books and incorporate these ideas into their own writing. The reading-writing relationship enhances the students understanding of genre and stylistics, such as dialogue, descriptive techniques, and transitions. When reading and writing work together, the students' writing skills are enhanced as seen in improvements in vocabulary and English conventions. Reading and writing together can be used to explore a topic in literature, construct meaning, appreciate the authors' style, and enhance attitude and motivation to learn. Reading and writing in together gives the students' an opportunity to be engaged with the literature, to develop as an author, and to compare their own writing with the work of their peers.
Tierney, R. J., & LaZansky, J. (1980).
The Rights and Responsibilities of Readers and Writers: A
Contractual Agreement. Language Arts, 57 (6),
606-613.
There is a contract that exists describing the role of the reader during comprehension and the writer during production. The reader-writer agreement is effective when the writer produces a text that allows the reader to use prior knowledge to construct the intended meaning of the text. Teachers need to provide opportunities for students to develop a sense of the reader-writer relationship where both authorship and readership are respected. Readers should be allowed to interact with writers in order to understand the reading-writing connection, which will enhance the production and comprehension of the text.
Tierney, R. J., & Leys, M. (1984). What
is the Value of Connecting Reading and
Center for the Study of Reading. (ERIC
Document Reproduction Service No. ED 251 810.)
This paper presents the benefits of interrelating reading and writing. The reading-writing connection is utilized as a device for information storage and retrieval, development of thought, communication, and self-indulgence. Research has presented that reading influences writing which will affect the view of writing and enhance the appreciation of the author's craft. Students use the format and ideas of the text being read and incorporate it into their writing, such as comparing and/or contrasting with a text's plot or character development in the literature. Students will begin using their reading as a rich resource for considering possible topics, ideas and stylistic options. Thus, research found that successful readers incorporate writing into their reading.
Tierney, R. J., & Pearson, P. D. (1984).
Toward a Composing Model of Reading. In J. M. Jensen
(Ed.). Composing and Comprehending (pp.
33-45). Urbana, IL: National Council
of Teachers of English.
Reading
and writing are viewed as similar processes of constructing meaning and
composing. The composing process is
parallel in reading and writing through essential components of planning,
drafting, aligning, revising, and monitoring.
In planning, the reader/ writer plans his reading/writing by establishing
purpose, evaluating prior knowledge about the topic, narrowing goals, and
self-questioning. In drafting, the
reader/writer refines the meaning when reading/writing.
In aligning, the reader/writer takes a stance in collaboration with the
author/audience. In revision, the reader makes interpretations, reactions, and
questions the text, while the writer re-examines, deletes and shapes the text to
express his/her intended meaning. In
monitoring, the reader/writer decides whether he/she planed, drafted, aligned
and revised properly. The
reader/writer monitors by reacting to what the writer has written or what the
reader has read.
Tierney, R. J., & Shanahan, T. (1991). Research on Reading-Writing Relationships:
Pearson, M. Barr, & P. B.Mosenthal (Eds.).
Handbook of Reading Research Volume II (pp. 246-280).New York: Longman
Since
the skills underlying reading and writing knowledge and process are similar,
then the combination of reading and writing instruction is essential in literacy
development. Research supports the
instruction of reading and writing relationship. Teachers, who employ reading-writing connection, find that
readers generate more ideas when they read and writers develop more ideas when
they wrote. Thus, the combination
of reading and writing activities lead to more reasoning operations than if
taught as separate subjects.
Tierney, R. J., Soter, A., O'Flahavan, J.
F., & McGinley, W. (1989) The Effects of Reading and
Writing Upon Thinking Critically. Reading
Research Quarterly, 24 (2)134-173.
[Abstract]
Tompkins,G. E. (1990). The Literature
Connection: How One Teacher Puts Reading and Writing
Together. In T. Shanahan. (Ed.). Reading and
Writing Together: New Perspectives for the
Classroom. (pp. 201-223). Norwood, MA: Christopher-Gordon Publishers.
This
chapter is the journal that covers twenty days of Ms. Chavez class in which she
taught a fantasy literature unit. She
uses an integrated, literature based approach to teach reading and writing in
the classroom. She uses reading and
writing activities of guided reading, shared reading, independent reading,
listening centers, informal writing, process writing, projects, and language
skills. She implements real
literacy activities and meaningful assignments rather than the traditional
workbook activities.
Truax, P. (2000). Readers That Can't
Write…Writers That Can't Read. Washington, DC: National
Clearinghouse on Reading and
Communication Skills. (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 488 456.)
Knowledge
of reading and writing are closely linked together and transferable to both.
However, why are there readers that can't write and writers that can't read?
Looking at the review of literature for grades 2 –4, which reveals that
reading and writing skills are mostly taught as separate subjects.
Research has shown that there is a positive correlation between reading
and writing and this needs to be taught as an interactive process. Both reading and writing processes are considered reflective,
that is prior knowledge is activated before reading and aids in establishing
purpose before writing. The lack of
integration between reading and writing in teaching techniques explains the
reason why some readers can't write and some writers can't read.
Wilson, M. (1981). A Review of Recent Research on the Integration of Reading and Writing. The Reading Teacher, 34 (8), 896-901.
The
research reveals that reading and writing should be taught together rather than
teaching reading first. One
assumption is that writing is a result of reading; therefore, reading needs to
be taught first before writing can occur. Reading
and writing should occur naturally when opportunities for reading and writing in
natural context exist. Students
need to “learn” reading and writing and not be “taught” how to read and
write. Students need to know the
function of each for language development.
Researchers state that growth in reading and writing is a
sociopsycholinguistic process. They
believe children have been exposed to written language and reading through a
literate society before beginning formal instruction.
Both processes should develop as a natural extension of the student's
need to communicate. Since reading
and writing are developmentally interrelated, then activities that interrelate
reading and writing need to be available in the classroom.
Because the emphasis of both reading and writing is meaning, the reading
program should clearly complement the writing program.
Wittrock, M. C. (1984). Writing and the
Teaching of Reading. In J. M.
Jensen (Ed.). Composing and
Comprehending (pp. 77-83). Urbana, IL:
National Council of Teachers of
English.
There
is a close relationship between reading and writing. Reading is the construction of meaning through relationship
of parts from the text and prior knowledge, while writing is relating our prior
knowledge and experiences to the text by putting meaning on the written pages.
Generation is the process of constructing meaning, a representation, a
model or explanation that agrees with the readers' prior knowledge and
experiences. There are two major
parts to the generative process: (1) to generate relations among the parts of
the text by constructed meaning, decoding, comprehension, and vocabulary and (2)
by building relations between the text and the readers' knowledge or
experience. Writing is also a
process of constructing meaning, which is a process of revision when the writer
is making the meaning more precise. The
process of connecting reading and writing are used to relate text and knowledge
to each other.
Wong-Kam, J., & Au, K. (1988). Improving a 4th Grader's Reading and Writing: Three Principles. The Reading Teacher, 41 (8), 768-772.
The purpose of this article is to present three principles of teaching reading and writing in the classroom. The first principle is to have all the students in the classroom become involved in a literate community of reading and writing that is students would work together to develop meaning in what has been read or written. The teacher would use guided lessons to teach meaning and function. The second principle is to integrate reading and writing through learning guides, that is a written response to a piece of literature. The students were to respond in writing by making predictions, stating cause and effect connections, and defining meanings of words. The third principle is to teach specific skill instruction for skill application so that struggling readers could become independent readers. The three principles are considered important in providing students with beneficial reading and writing experiences. By using these three principles, the students are reading and writing very differently and more independently.
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