Literature
Review
Words serve different purposes when we read, write, and speak: A reader needs to recognize words and assign meanings to them; a writer and speaker must choose words to convey ideas. A person with a limited vocabulary will have difficulty expressing and understanding ideas.
Incidental reading (wide reading) has been shown to have a positive effect on vocabulary development. However, there are some students that do not benefit from incidental reading and poorer readers are frequently unmotivated or unable to do the amount of contextual reading to extend their vocabulary. Judicious attention to vocabulary can build knowledge of specific vocabulary and can have a positive though modest impact on comprehension (Blachowicz, 1985).
Baber and Bacon's (1995) study results suggest that the instructional approach used to teach new words to children with reading problems can significantly affect their memory for the words.
Marlow Ediger (1999) offered eight essential reasons for enriching and developing students' vocabularies in each academic discipline: 1) subject matter and ideas are expressed with more clarity and accuracy, 2) proficiency in the work place might well depend upon individuals having a quality vocabulary, 3) individuals seemingly have more prestige if their listening, speaking, reading and writing vocabularies are adequately developed, 4) greater enjoyment of reading is in the offing if a person has a rich functional vocabulary, 5) vocabulary development is salient in problem solving. A person with a rich vocabulary should have a better opportunity to develop his/her personality, 6) conversations carried on with other persons require a rich vocabulary, 7) variety in selecting words to convey accurate meanings is necessary in speaking and writing, the out goes of the language arts, and 8) use of diverse terms and concepts in speaking and writing adds variety to quality communication. It is therefore important to determine what types of vocabulary instruction can effectively increase students' vocabulary and ability to independently use strategies to learn new words. The purpose of this literature review is to identify and describe the components of successful vocabulary instruction.
It appears that the following are attributes which can make vocabulary instruction effective for students: exposure to words in meaningful contexts, rich or varied information about each word, establishment of ties between instructed words and students' own experience and prior knowledge, multiple exposures to words and an active role by students in the word learning process ( Alber, & Foil, 2002; Blachowicz, & Fisher, 2000; Ediger, 1999, Graves, 1984; Johnson, 2000; Mezynski, 1983). The teacher needs to establish objectives, learning opportunities and evaluation procedures within individual academic areas to guide students in acquiring a rich listening, speaking, reading and writing vocabulary (Johnson,2000).
The key to successful vocabulary instruction builds upon students' background knowledge and makes explicit the connections between new vocabulary words and what they already know. By building connections between “old” vocabulary words and new words found in their reading students begin to understand relationships among words they encounter. When instruction is based on building connections, students are not just asked to supply words, but rather to describe how words fit in the stories and informational text that they read (Logan, Nicholas, & Rupley, 1999).
The increasing awareness of the influence of prior knowledge in the reading process has given even greater importance to vocabulary development. A reader's vocabulary serves as a means of labeling the ideas (or schemata) that already exist in the mind ( Heimlich, & Pittelman, 1986). If a word is well integrated with other knowledge accessing that particular word is likely to result in accessing other ideas ( Mezynski, 1983). Students need to be entering word meanings with their existing knowledge to build conceptual representations of vocabulary in multiple contextual situations (Logan, Nicholas, & Rupley, 1999).
When words are semantically related it allows exercises to probe the relationships among the instructed words and also integrate those words with students' prior knowledge about the concepts (Mezynski, 1983). Semantic analysis has many different names such as mapping, webbing and feature analysis. All these procedures help students place new words in their existing schema when we make connections among the words they already know about a specific topic or concept (Manning, 1999).
Stahl and Vancil's (1986) study with semantic maps showed that semantic mapping may enable children to connect new information more efficiently to knowledge they already have. Semantic mapping involves thinking about relations between the target words and students own experiences.
Semantic word maps allow students to conceptually explore their knowledge of a new word by mapping it with other words or phrases, which categorically share meaning with the new word. Semantic mapping provides students with a visual means of organizing content information. Developing semantic maps help link prior knowledge to new knowledge and therefore deepens students understanding of important vocabulary (Alber, & Foil, 2002).
Semantic feature analysis is especially beneficial when words are closely related by class or common features. In order for students to analyze common vocabulary the teacher lists several familiar words that are related then the students are encouraged to discuss features or characteristics associated with the words listed. These suggestions are then written across the top of the chart, creating a matrix that the students' can complete in terms of presence or absence; As students broaden and define their concepts, the teacher adds words and features to the list and analyzes them (Logan, Nicholas, & Rupley, 1999).
Word webs are another effective tool for activating prior knowledge and word associations. In word webs the teacher introduces the vocabulary word, either orally or in writing in the context of a sentence. A definition is provided and synonymous words are listed inside the box. Associations are then listed along outside of the box (Johnson, & Rasmussen, 1998).
Rosenbaum (2001) describes how effective it is for the teacher to model the use of the map ( the map includes the definition, synonym, unique expression, association, or example, antonym, sentence from the book and an original sentence) with vocabulary words is for students. As students become proficient with using the map summarizing and predicting can be added and students can map different words and present them to the class.
Semantic mapping, webbing, etc. emphasizes where a word fits in children's semantic repertoire rather than what it means or how it is used in a sentence. Focusing vocabulary efforts on techniques emphasizing semantic elaboration and semantic fit rather than definition and usage will give students ownership of the vocabulary (Pearson, 1985).
Stahl and Vancil's (1986) study with semantic maps showed that discussion is a critical element in semantic mapping and may be another characteristic of effective vocabulary instruction.
Reflections about new words can be springboards for critical discussions about concepts and literary elements in reading. Harmon's (1998) study describes discussion groups with one person assigned the role of “vocabulary enricher.” In these group sessions where students participated as vocabulary enrichers and group members, learning outcomes resulted in the mobilization of independent word learning strategies, self-generated and shared meaning constructions and exposure to peer-selected words. Students had a vested interest in their own learning and that of the group. When the vocabulary enricher asked for comments students offered their ideas about targeted words as they interpreted and clarified points for others. The social interaction among group members stimulated discussions that produced variations in the meaning of the word.
Reciprocal teaching is another instructional technique in which students may learn vocabulary that they select themselves . One of the four components of reciprocal teaching involves students helping each other clarify parts of the text that they do not understand. This may involve the selection of vocabulary to study (Blachowicz, & Fisher, 2000).
Within cooperative group discussions students listen to others, use oral communication with opportunities to achieve in vocabulary development. Vocabulary instruction that encourages children to discuss, elaborate and demonstrate meanings of new words, and provides varied opportunities for them to use new words outside of their classroom has been shown to be effective (Logan, Nicholas, & Rupley, 1999).
If students do not reveal interest in learning, they will not achieve as optimally as possible. Purposeful learning in vocabulary development means that students perceive reasons for achieving. Purposeful learning has as a goal that students perceive the values inherent in vocabulary activities (Ediger, 1999).
Ruddell and Shearer's (2002) Vocabulary Self Collection Strategy (VSS) study demonstrated the power of inviting students to choose their own vocabulary words. Using VSS revealed that students who were once indifferent to unfamiliar words in their reading had discovered that locating words in their content class reading and bringing them to the VSS activity would produce multiply rewards- learning a new word for their reading class and increasing their knowledge and accomplishment in content classes. VSS word lists show that when given the chance to choose their own vocabularies words, students will consistently choose important, challenging interesting words to learn.
Building a personal vocabulary related to the depth of study of words chosen to be learned, and the care given to developing a program of word learning in the curriculum contribute to the motivation of the learner (Blachowicz,1985).
Manning (1999) recommends teachers have students create their own personal dictionary. Teachers need to assist students in attaching personal meanings by relating them to their own experiences, visualizations and backgrounds.
The role of the learner in vocabulary instruction is of significance- students need to generate meaning. When students work to process stimuli (by constructing a relationship rather than by memorizing a given one) the better their retention will be. The length of the program is also important so students have time to develop target content and skills and students have opportunities to encounter new words in many context (Blachowicz, 1985).
Brett, Hurley, & Rothlein's (1996) study with read alouds showed that repeated reading aloud of stories encouraged incidental learning of vocabulary. The number of times a word occurred in a story was positively related to the likelihood that a student would learn that word, that students with smaller vocabularies prior to hearing the story learned as much as students with greater word knowledge and that students remembered the words that they had learned after three months.
Repeated exposure to vocabulary provides students with the chance to experience vocabulary words in a variety of context. Practice in context is an essential aspect of skill and content development (Blachowicz, 1985).
Hess and Higgins' (1996) study with the use of electronic books demonstrated that when students using the computer were able to receive an explanation for target words through clicking on the word and seeing an animation to help them understand the meaning of the word and received supplemental vocabulary instruction during the reading of the poem learned and retained the meanings of the target words better than those who only viewed the animated cues. Learning how to use existing technology-based educational programs is an important endeavor for everyone who is responsible for the wise and effective use of technology in school classrooms.
Graves (1984) classifies vocabulary into four types. Identifying the type of vocabulary being taught may affect the instructional approach, the depth and time involved. Type One are words which are in the students' oral vocabulary but which they cannot read (the words that need to be taught first are those that are most useful to students, those that occur most frequently in their reading materials), Type Two words are new meanings for words which are already in the students' reading vocabulary with one or more meanings (students need to learn that words have multiple meanings and that the particular meaning a word has is determined by context in which it occurs), Type Three words are neither in the students' oral vocabulary nor in their reading vocabulary and for which they don't have an available concept but for which a concept can be easily built ( Teachers need to insure that students have strategies that will enable them to deal with Type Three words independently, allow and encourage students to use these strategies when ever possible and identify and teach those Type Three words which students would have problems dealing with independently or which are particularly important for a variety of reasons), Type Four words are neither in the students' oral vocabulary nor their reading vocabulary, for which they do not have an available concept and for which a concept cannot be easily built (fully understanding a concept involves being able to identify specific instances and non-instances of the concept and distinguishing between that concept and other related concepts. Teaching a single concept may take days, and attempting to teach new concepts as if they were merely new words will only confuse students).
Helping students become independent word learners is another aspect of vocabulary development that cannot be ignored. Harmon (2000) recommends the following questions for students to think more deeply and critically about strategic actions they employ as they encounter unknown words as well as what avenues are open for them to explore: Do I know this word?, Do I need to know this word to understand what I am reading?, If I think this word is important what do I already know about it?, What does the word have to do with what I am reading?, What is it referring to?, How is it used in the sentence?, Does it describe or show action? Do I see any word parts that make sense?, Do I know enough about this word?, Do I need to know more information?, How can I find out more about this word?, Should I ask someone or use the dictionary?
Instruction in independent word learning strategies moves toward three major areas: using context, examining word structure and referring to other sources. Direct instruction of the most frequently occurring prefixes, explicit modeling showing how knowledge of word parts fits the context of a sentence (think alouds are beneficial in showing students how to use knowledge of word parts to figure out its meaning and use of context clues), guidance in making sense of dictionary definitions and the need for continually emphasizing word learning strategies in students are all essential for achieving independent learning (Graves, 1999). Harmon's (2002) study with think alouds showed that think alouds are essential for assessing independent word learning strategies. It provides a starting point for helping teachers understand what strategies students use. It can also help teaching document changes in the kinds of strategies students develop over time.
Effective independent word learning strategies become even more critical as students encounter new words in more complex literacy tasks across a variety of disciplines.
Children's word recognition capability, vocabulary growth and comprehension development are essential components of a balanced reading program. Reading instruction that focuses on the growth of children's vocabulary results in enhancing their abilities to infer meanings and to better comprehend what they read. Children with broad vocabulary are better able to infer the meanings of unfamiliar words in the texts that they read.
The goals of an effective vocabulary instruction should be to expand and strengthen students' vocabulary and to move new words into their productive vocabulary.
Children need to know the meanings of a great many words if they are to be effective readers, writers and speakers.
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