Literacy Research |
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From
Pits to Passion
Does implementing transactional strategies instruction improve
reading comprehension and enable a reader to move from an acclimated reader to
a proficient reader?
The development of literacy is a complex process. To
become a reader and writer an individual must be able to coordinate a variety
of skills. The formal reading instruction usually begins with phonemic
awareness and the understanding that words are made up of individual sounds and
have meaning. Without this foundation, the reading process would be extremely
challenging for individuals. With a structured skilled-based curriculum, most
readers are able to make progress and achieve the skills to be needed to begin
to interact with written material.
Through direct teaching and modeling,as well as personal reading and
writing experiences, students can slowly build a repertoire of skills and
comprehension strategies.
Reading comprehension requires
readers to transact with the text to construct meaning. Comprehension
strategies involve an awareness of interacting with the written material and an
ability to construct meaning. These reading comprehension strategies must be
modeled, learned, repeated and reinforced for a reader to evolve from an
acclimated reader to a proficient reader. Good readers are able to utilize more
skills and strategies than poor readers, so learning to read requires the
interrelationship of awareness, motivation and instructional methods. The
skill, will, and thrill of a reader helps the learner to plan, evaluate and
develop an interest in reading to transform into a self-directed learner (Alexander
& Jetton, 2000). In other words, a reader must possess the capability to
decode written language, have motivation to read text and become engaged in
reading to transform into a proficient reader.
When thinking about the complexity
of the literacy process as well as the development of reading, some children
have the ability to understand grapheme-phonemic relationships and the
structure of language, but are unable to negotiate and construct meaning
through text. This research focuses on reading comprehension strategies to help
acclimated readers become proficient.
This summary will describe the
transactional strategies instruction (TSI) and the impact it makes on reading
comprehension. Transactional strategies instruction approach can be best
described as multi-faceted, balanced or student-centered. The core of
transactional strategies instruction is the theory that readers must be able to
transact with text to gain meaning (Goodman, 1994, Rosenblatt, 1994). With
transactional strategies instruction primary to secondary students are able to
access meaningful content material. Therefore, TSI enables children to think
about comprehension strategies, utilize comprehension strategies proficiently
and engage in reading to construct meaning from a variety of genres.
Historically, researchers have
continually questioned which methodology for reading instruction is best (Reading
Instruction, 1997). The shifts in literacy indicate researchers, educators and
parents are looking for an alternate pedagogy for reading and writing (Brown
& Coy-Ogan, 1993). The phonetic-based reading programs stress decoding
skills, and the whole language philosophy emphasizes comprehension, but
transactional strategies instruction (TSI) combines both methods to help
students improve their word attack skills and reading comprehension. Direct
modeling and direct instruction of decoding skills and comprehension strategies
are combined as the ideal methodology for transactional strategies. Decoding
skills are as vital as comprehension strategies for success in literacy (Yopp
& Singer, 1994). The TSI supports
decoding skills by allowing a
student to select one or more of the following ways:
·
Sound out
the word
·
Look for
context clues
·
Reread
·
Skip the
word (not every word is needed for understanding)
With a variety of word attack strategies, a learner will
become engaged in reading and will attempt more challenging text. This path
will lead a child to become an interactive reader.
Transactional strategies
instruction stresses that a reader needs to have a selection of strategies to
engage in text to comprehend a variety of genres (Goodman, 1994). Students are
taught an assortment of strategies to assist them in deriving meaning from
text, and this repertoire of strategies can be taught in different
instructional settings. Some TSI comprehension strategies that can
be taught are:
·
Make
predictions
·
Relate
text to background knowledge
·
Ask
questions
·
Seek
clarification (i.e. reread, picture clues)
·
Visualize
meaning
·
Summarize
Transactional strategies
instruction is a flexible approach to teach reading comprehension (Pressley
& Wharton-McDonald, 1995). Students are taught a variety of strategies, and
how to efficiently adapt learned strategies to interact with text to construct
meaning. It is the flexibility that allows the instruction of transactional
strategies to focus on individuals’ learning styles and change as the learners’
progress. TSI parallels with the student-centered literature model (Baines
& Farrell, in press), and Rosenblatt has shown support for the student-centered
literature model. She developed one of the first theoretical foundations to be
aligned with student-centered instruction. The student-centered literature
model and transactional strategies instruction can be individualized as well as
adapted to enhance literacy development.
Reading should not be treated as a
separate skill or activity, but centered on human beings who are thinking,
reading and writing, and continuously transacting with their environment
(Rosenblatt, 1994). The transactional theory states that the process of reading
involves the mind and the emotions of the reader. The type of attention on what
is being read determines the reading continuum. The efferent stance is used to
focus on ideas or factual information to be applied after the reading. The
aesthetic stance is centered on the feelings that occur during reading and
engages experiences of the reader to construct meaning (Rosenblatt, 1994).
Reader’s dialogue constructs meaning through interaction with text, and is
comparable with the philosophy of transactional theory (Holloway, 1999). The
transactional strategies instruction is an active approach to learning to read
and write, when knowledge is transferred to build understanding. TSI enables
readers to transfer their learned skills and strategies to a variety of genres
to gain understanding and allows learners to become proficient readers.
Studies involving elementary to
secondary students supported TSI as being beneficial in improving reading
comprehension (Pressley, Brown, Van Meter, Schuder, 1995). Researchers
demonstrate that students with disabilities, at–risk students, and bilingual
students can improve comprehension strategies and decoding skills when actively
involved with text. Transactional strategies instruction is flexible, leads to
the development of a variety of comprehension strategies, and promotes the
interaction with the text for primary and secondary students. Through
flexibility and individualized instruction, students can be taught in their own style to promote comprehension
(Rodulfo, 1999).
The U. S. National Reading Panel
reported four qualitative studies indicating students involved in a high level
of engagement had a positive effect on comprehension. In a 1992 study, 80% of
TSI students demonstrated gains on reading comprehension subtests
(Comprehension, 1992). Transactional strategies instruction develops decoding
skills as well as comprehension strategies substantiated by standardized tests
(Pressley, El-Dinary, Gaskins, Schuder, Bergman, Almaso, Brown, 1992).
Although research indicated
transactional strategies instruction approach improved reading comprehension,
some researchers scrutinized the methodology. Some questions from the readings
were: Would TSI would frustrate students? Would skipping words may be
problematic? Would the interest in reading may be lost? and Would the fun could
be taken out of reading? (Ferro-Almeida, 1993). The TSI takes approximately three
years of continuous training to become an expert teacher. Educators must
examine their current pedagogy and evaluate the transactional strategies
approach before making the decision of integrating another literacy approach.
Does implementing transactional strategies
instruction improve reading comprehension and enable a reader to move from an
acclimated reader to a proficient reader?
The transactional strategies
instruction is an active approach to reading and writing, in which knowledge is
transferred to construct meaning. Students are learning multiple strategies and
skills, developing an awareness of the reading process and acquiring more
information from text while using meaningful content material. Therefore,
implications from the studies indicate transactional strategies instruction
provides students with an array of strategies, increased readers’
comprehension, and developed independent readers (Pressley, et al., 1995).
Sharon R. Dulin
