References
Does implementing transactional strategies instruction improve reading comprehension and enable a reader to move from an acclimated reader to a proficient reader?
Alexander, P. A. & Jetton, T. L. (2000). Learning from text: A
multidimensional and developmental perspective. In M.L. Kamil, P.B. Mosenthal,
P. D. Pearson, & R. Barr, (Eds.), Handbook
of reading research III. (pp. 285 -310). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.
This qualitative study
examines the complexity of learning from text. The purpose of this study is to
look at the factors that influence textbook learning. Three students were
observed reading Huckleberry Finn. One
student displays difficulty comprehending due to inadequate background
knowledge. The second student is a female, and is not engaged in reading due to
gender issues. The third student has difficulty with comprehension and dislikes
reading. The findings of this study were centered on three factors:
instructional support, instructional material, and learner autonomy. The
combination of skill, will, and thrill are the driving forces behind text-based
learning.
The
implications from this study are for learners to scaffold from acclimated
learners to proficient learners there must be instructional support and
instructional material to allow students to engage in a meaningful text-based
learning and develop ownership of learning.
Anderson, J. (2001). Success in
reading: A seven-trait approach. Classroom Leadership, 5(3). Retrieved January 18
2003, from www.ascd.org
This research poses the
question: What are the characteristics of a quality literacy program for 1st
grade? Through qualitative studies, the multi-faceted approach demonstrated to
be the best method for providing a quality literacy program from examining
literacy research. The researchers identified the Four Block Literacy Model and
the Balance Literacy Model as quality instructional programs. Both of these
approaches contained seven identical elements: 1) Students are read to, 2)
Teachers read to students, 3) Students read, 4) Writing has a purpose, 5)
Teachers write with students, 6) Students write, and 7) Students spell and
study words.
In a narrative study, a
first grade teacher used these seven characteristics to teach literacy to her
class. Students would switch activities every fifteen minutes. Anderson
observed her students enjoying reading and writing while engaging in these
activities. The students’ scores increased in decoding and comprehension as
documented by the teacher with observations and informal tests. Parents
commented positively on the growth in their children’s reading and writing
abilities.
The implications of this
study are the characteristics of a multi-faceted literacy approach seem to be
aligned with the methodology of transactional strategies instruction, and both
models contain the seven elements of a quality literacy program. The first
graders demonstrated an increase in decoding skills and comprehension
strategies as observed by teachers as well as parents, and results were
supported by informal tests. The readers were engaged and motivated in literacy
activities in this study, which is important to the TSI approach.
Baines, L., & Farrell, D. (in press). The tao of instructional
models. In Flood, Lapp, Jensen & Squire (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts. New
York: Macmillan.
The article discusses the
constant fluctuation between student-centered instruction and content knowledge
instruction. Through an historical study, models may seem to shift or fade
away, however, usually emerge in some way later on. This study looked at the
teacher variables, student variables and classroom variables, while tracking
the curriculum. An important factor is the accountability and the achievement
scores when evaluating instructional models.
In this study Rosenblatt supported a
student-centered literature model.
Student-centered instruction parallels with the
transactional strategies instruction approach because they both support
individualized instruction as well as flexibility to enhance literacy
development of every type of learner.
While TSI can be flexible and individualized for students; it does
utilize content material for literacy instruction.
Brown, R. & Coy-Ogan, L. (1993). The evolution of transactional
strategies instruction in one’s teacher’s classroom. The Elementary School Journal, 94(2), 221- 233.
This qualitative study analyzes transactional
strategies instruction to build meaning from text and if these strategies are
internalized and used by readers. The teacher taught three groups of six
comparable low-achieving second grade students for a total of eighteen
students. The researchers used an interaction-tracking and coding scheme to
analyze the 45 minute lessons for changes in interactional patterns,
participation, instructional focus, and strategy instruction, and prompted a
self-regulated use of strategies for a quantitative analysis study. Many of the
observed changes related to teacher’s practices, instructional focus and
program structure. These changes were reflected in evidence found from lesson
transcripts, quantitative analysis, and observations by program developers and
researchers.
It was noted that the
teacher’s experience paralleled with the Concerns-Based Adoption Model of
teacher change (Hall & Hord, 1987) which the teacher’s practices move
through three stages: Stage 1- mechanical use, Stage 2 – experimentation, Stage
3 – interactional and personalization. It was noted that an effective
strategies-based teacher must progress through the same stages as her students.
Learning to implement the transaction strategies instruction approach requires
three years of hard work to emerge as an expert teacher.
The implication from this study is
TSI takes three years for an individual to become an accomplished instructor.
Training and support must be given in order for teachers to be effective in
moving their students along a literacy continuum. The historical shifts of
literacy instruction indicate researchers, educators, and parents are looking
for an alternate pedagogy for reading and writing. The transactional strategies
instruction is a balanced program needs to be supported by teachers and
administrators for a continuous period to ensure success of a balanced literacy
approach.
Brown, A.L., Palincsar, A. & Armbuster, B. (1994. Instructing
comprehension-fostering activities in interactive learning situations. In R. Ruddell,
M. Ruddell, & H. Singer, (Eds.), Theoretical
models and processes of reading. 4th edition. (pp. 1093 -1130).
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
The purpose of this article was to
focus on direct instruction of comprehension – fostering skills with at risk
children. Three studies were conducted with seventh grade students who have
average decoding skills, but had deficits in comprehension ability. The first
two studies took place in a laboratory setting. Four students were given tests
on decoding and comprehension to make them eligible for this study. For six to
eight days, students received baseline assessments on a 500 word expository
passage with ten comprehension questions to answer. Ten days of reciprocal
teaching followed by six days of maintenance and then three days of reciprocal
teaching. Six months later students were retested for eight days, four days of
untreated followed by two days of reciprocal teaching with two days of
maintenance. The students averaged 15% correct during the baseline. After
introducing reciprocal instruction students reached 80 – 90% correct. After six
months students averaged 60% correct independently, and after one day of
reciprocal teaching two students reached 80% accuracy and the others achieved
90% accuracy.
The single subject design
showed an improvement in their ability to answer comprehension question. The
students displayed an increased concentration and summaries through verbal
dialogues. The second study was duplicated by with six additional students. In
study two, all students demonstrated improve d reading comprehension and
dialogues.
Study three replicated study
one and two, but the researcher was replaced by a teacher in a school setting.
There were four groups ranging from four – seven students in each group. An
improvement was found in comprehension and dialogue but less dramatic from
study one and two. The study was regarded to be successful because the effect
was large, reliable and durable, and generalized to a classroom setting. Improvements
in standardized scores demonstrated that the intervention was successful in a
natural setting.
From this study the implications show
reciprocal teaching and transactional strategies instruction are designed to be
an interactive approach to literacy development. Both models are taught by
direct modeling and instruction of reading skills and strategies along with an
awareness of thinking skills and self-monitoring.
Ferro-Almeida, S. (1993). Teachers’ initial perceptions of
transactional strategies instruction. The
Elementary School Journal, 94(2), 201 - 205.
This qualitative study looked at the
initial perceptions of thirty professional elementary teachers who volunteered
to examine the transactional reading strategies instruction by reading about
it, watching videotapes and rating items on an 18-item questionnaire with an
explanation for each rating. A mean rating and scale was given for each
question, and two independent raters categorized the responses.
Overall, the teachers’ first impressions were positive. There were
concerns such as the continuous use of transactional strategies instruction
(TSI) would frustrate students, skipping words may be problematic, interest may
be lost and the fun might be taken out of reading. This article indicated that
additional research would be needed while teachers are being educated in using
transactional strategies, and after they have gained some experience with TSI.
The overall impression of TSI from
teachers was positive, but there were concerns about the continuous use of
directly taught strategies and the methodologies of some strategies. This study
seemed to be a rarity because it sought after the opinions of professional
teachers on the TSI approach to teaching literacy.
Goodman, K. S. (1994). Reading, writing, and written texts: A
transactional sociopsycholinguistic view. In R. Ruddell, M. Ruddell, & H.
Singer, (Eds.), Theoretical models and
processes of reading. 4th edition. (pp. 1093 -1130). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
The article examines the process of
reading and how a reader makes sense of print. Goodman studied urban black and
white students with an array of dialects, which focused on the social
variations in language. Through miscue analysis of hundreds of readers with
varied cultural and linguistic backgrounds and abilities, the findings from
this qualitative study show if readers are to understand text they must be able
to transact with the text using literacy process. Understanding of the text is
not possible without engaging oneself in text and developing a sense of what it
is about. Readers must acquire a variety of strategies to develop comprehension
with different types of text.
This study supports the theory that
one must be able to transact with text to gain meaning, which is the core of
the transactional strategies instruction. TSI stresses that a reader needs to
have a variety of strategies and skills to engage in text and develop a sense
of when to use learned strategies and skills to comprehend a variety of genres.
Halford, J.M. (1997). Focusing the debate on student achievement. Infobrief (10). Retrieved January 18,
2003, from www. ascd.org
The purpose of this qualitative study
was to examine the intense and on-going debates on the best approach to teach
children to read. This article indicated a balanced reading curriculum would be
the best approach. Many direct phonics instruction supporters believe they are
balancing phonics with the whole language approach, but whole language
advocates feel phonics is taking over.
The best approach is to
focus on individual learning styles and how these styles change as a person
progresses along the developmental continuum, according to Marie Carbo, the
executive director of the National Reading Styles Institute. A strong influence
on determining the best approach controversy is the textbook market. The
industry wants to see who will win the battle in the reading debate. What is
the driving force; educators, parents, textbook industries or political
viewpoints?
The implications showed support for a
balance curriculum which TSI advocates. The transactional strategies approach
attempts to teach skills and strategies through modeling and direct
instruction, so that a reader can have an array of strategies to interact with
text. Another powerful quality is the flexibility within the TSI program that
allows for individualized learning.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). The place of dialogue in children’s
construction of meaning. In R. Ruddell, M. Ruddell, & H. Singer, (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading.
4th edition. (pp. 1093 -1130). Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
This article supported the view that
constructing of meaning is a social process. It is through experiences and dialogue
that meaning is created and evolves into a process where meaning is developed
through language. Through a narrative method, Halliday examines the development
of semantic strategies and complex components to the construct language (i. e.
question, answer, challenge, and contradiction). From this study, it can be
concluded that readers interact with the text and its environment along with
our personal experiences to create understanding.
Implications from Halliday stated in
his study that readers create meaning through their interaction with text this
idea is paralleled with the philosophy of transactional strategies instruction.
Also, TSI draws from our prior knowledge to construct meaning from text same as
the readers’ dialogue works toward the construction of meaning.
Holloway, J. H. (1999). Improving the reading skills of adolescents. Educational Leadership, 57(2), 80-81.
Retrieved January 18, 2003, from www. ascd.org
This essay looks for solutions to
improve reading skills of adolescent students. A single subject design study
was conducted at the San Diego’s Morse High School since teachers established a
formal reading course to improve reading skills and strategies in the secondary
curriculum. Through extensive reading, vocabulary development, building
comprehension strategies and writing, students gained one grade level in
reading achievement, as measured by the Abbreviated Stanford Achievement Test
(ASAT). By the end of the second semester, the gain was about five times the
mean for these students would have made during a normal period of school time.
The results of this study
demonstrated favorable outcome for these students by building comprehension
strategies, writing and through extensive reading. The TSI methodology believes
literacy is a continuous process, and significant time should be spent on
reading and writing to improve reading strategies and writing skills.
Jacobs, V. A. (2002). Reading, writing and understanding. Educational Leadership, 60(3), 58 – 61.
Retrieved January 18, 2003, from www.ascd.org
This qualitative study found
secondary school teachers are reluctant to integrate reading and writing in
their instruction. It was suggested in this article that in-service programs
allow teachers time to examine their goals and how they currently engage
students in reading and writing to reach those goals. After teachers examine
their goals and instruction, then they may recognize that they are
incorporating many reading-to- learn or writing-to-learn strategies and look to
discover more effective literacy instruction to suit their students’
development of understanding in the content areas.
The implications are as such, many
school systems provide in-service for their teachers, but how much of this
training is followed up or accepted as strategies to be used their classrooms.
The TSI approach believes it takes approximately three years of continuous
training to become an expert transactional strategies teacher, so it is not a
program to take lightly. Teachers must examine their current pedagogy and
evaluate the TSI approach before making the decision of integrating another
approach to literacy development.
Koskinen, P. S. (Ed.). (1995) National Reading Research Center. Brown,
R., El-Dinary, P.B., Pressley, M. Coy-Ogan, L., A transactional strategies
approach to reading instruction. The
Reading Teacher, 49(3), 256 – 258.
The article studied
effectiveness of transactional strategies instruction (TSI) to help students
become self-regulated readers. In a controlled yearlong quasi-experimental
study, six second grade students in TSI classrooms were matched to six students
in non-TSI classrooms. The results showed that TSI students learned more about
strategies, acquired more information from text, and demonstrated significant
gains on standardized comprehension and word study skills test. The finding
aligned with teachers’ perception that the TSI builds student awareness of
reading processes and critical thinking skills, improves comprehension
incorporates prior knowledge and enables students’ to interpret text. Also,
teachers noted an increase in self-confidence and students demonstrated
enjoyment during reading.
From this study, the
implications are TSI readers’ have made significant gains in several areas.
Students demonstrated gains in reading comprehension by increasing their growth
in strategy development and word skills, building awareness of the reading
process and incorporating prior knowledge to enhance understanding of text. An
important finding was that transactional strategies instruction increased
self-confidence and enjoyment in reading that is essential for students to
become proficient readers.
Langer, J. A. & Hihan, S. (2000). Writing and reading
relationships: Constructive tasks. In R. Indrisano & J.R. Squire, (Eds.), Perspectives on writing: Research theory and
practice. (pp. 112 -139). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Primarily during the
twentieth century, reading and writing research did overlap but it was not
linked together as a topic. This qualitative study examines the interaction of
reading and writing in the development and communication of ideas. The
interaction of reading and writing is continuously constructing meaning. While
reading the mind anticipates, looks back and forms an impression to develop
understanding. During the writing process, the mind develops language syntax
and structure and transacts with the paper. Different types of knowledge can be
utilized through reading instruction and transferred to writing instruction:
informational knowledge, structural knowledge, transactional knowledge, process
knowledge and the purpose knowledge. A number of studies compared reading to
writing models and writing to reading models showed that an interaction between
reading and writing process to suggest the transfer of knowledge between the
two processes. Reading and writing occur in natural ways when learners are
active in learning to read and write. Students do their best with frequent and
extended opportunities with a variety of genres and styles. Instruction must
encourage reading and writing relationships to construct meaning.
The implications from this study are
reading and writing are interactive processes that construct meaning, and
knowledge is transferred in a nature way when the learner is active. The
transactional strategies instruction is an active approach to learning to
reading and writing, in which knowledge is transferred to build understanding.
Lubliner, Shira (2001). Reciprocal teaching. Classroom Leadership, 5 (3). Retrieved January 18, 2003, from
www.ascd.org.
This article emphasized how
struggling students receiving remedial services are limited to their exposure
to higher-level content areas. A narrative case study involved a 5th
grade student who began to receive reciprocal teaching instruction and became a
turning point for this student. Small group reciprocal teaching instruction
within the mainstream has allowed this student to access grade level material
successfully. He has participated with enthusiasm and productively. Reciprocal
teaching instruction has allowed struggling students to develop strategic
listening skills, and be able to access high-level material.
The implication from this study is
that all students’ access grade level content material. This is an important
part of the transactional strategies instruction approach, and this article
supports that believe. Students are learning multiple strategies and skills,
developing an awareness of the reading process and acquiring more information
from text while using meaningful content material.
Moll, L. C. (1994). Literacy as curricular conversations about
knowledge, inquiry and morality. In R. Ruddell, M. Ruddell, & H. Singer,
(Eds.), Theoretical models and processes
of reading. 4th edition. (pp. 179 -207). Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
Latino or Hispanic students have
shown a high rate of failure among minority groups. This qualitative study
examines literacy development within Latino households and communities and
their relationship to classroom practices. In studying the social structures of
the Latino households the researcher hoped to establish teaching methodologies
to link the home and school.
In a predominantly Mexican
working-class Tucson, Arizona, thirty 4th grade students and their
families were selected to participate in the household study. A team of
researchers did an initial household visit, and they collected data through
field notes, questionnaires, and checklists. Field notes were descriptive to
provide background information. Questionnaires focused on daily routines,
children’s participation in household activities, family composition reading
practices of parents in Spanish and English, and assessments of their reading
and writing skills. The questionnaires were scored through a coding system
before placed in the data file. The checklist had two columns for recording
literacy materials observed and literacy materials stated by household. These
types of literacy materials included bills, legal documents, schedules,
homework, and writing paper.
Through the researchers’
analysis of Hispanic household literacy it was found that acquisition,
development, and the use of language is a social and interactive process. In
school, bilingual students need a meaning-based pedagogy to develop competence
in literacy. It was also found that Hispanic students need a holistic approach
to expand learned skills and strategies to other activities, and not learn
literacy as bits of knowledge.
Implications from Moll’s study showed
that bilingual students need a holistic approach to literacy development. TSI
supports this approach by utilizing meaningful content to teach strategies and
skills though an interactive process to develop literacy in all students.
Paris, S. G, Lipson, M. Y. & Wixson, K. K. (1994). Becoming a
strategic reader. In R. Ruddell, M.
Ruddell, & H. Singer, (Eds.), Theoretical
models and processes of reading. 4th edition. (pp. 788 -810).
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
The purpose of this qualitative study
examined how strategic behavior increases reading comprehension. The strategic
behaviors were evaluated in an experimental study. The study was called
Informed Strategies for Learning. Two classes out of four third grade and fifth
grade received four months of reading strategies instruction. Each lesson
discussed the purpose and the value of different strategies through
practice. Through comparison of pretest
and posttest scores, the experimental and the control group demonstrated that
children in the experimental groups scored significantly higher. Reading
strategies can be directly taught to enhance understanding and with learned
skills, children’s motivation will increase to help them become skilled
independent readers.
The implications from this study are
reading strategies that are directly taught to readers help increase
understanding of text and enable reader to become proficient. Direct
instruction and modeling of reading strategies and skills are the center of the
TSI. With these acquired behaviors, children will be able to evolve into
independent readers. These factors supported my question.
Pressley, M., Brown, R., Van Meter, P. & Schuder, T. (1995).
Trends: Reading/transactional strategies. Connecting
with the Community and the World of Work, 52(8), 81 – 82. Retrieved February 1, 2003, from
www.ascd.org
This qualitative study
examined SAIL, a reading approach based on the transactional theory. A Maryland
public school system experiments with the Students Achieving Independent
Learning (SAIL) program on predominantly low –achieving 2nd graders.
These students were divided into two groups. One group was taught by SAIL
instruction and the other group by conventional strategies. Both groups
demonstrated no difference on standardized comprehension or word skills tests
in the beginning of the study. At the end of the study, the results
demonstrated SAIL students did better on comprehension and word skill tests.
Indicators from the test showed SAIL students extracting more information from
text than the control group.
From the implication of this
study, the transactional strategies instruction is called SAIL (Students
Achieving Independent Learning) shows students taught by this method of
instruction have increased their comprehension. With transactional strategies
instruction readers can become independent readers, which confirms TSI does
improve comprehension.
Pressley, M., El-Dinary, P. B., Gaskins, I. Schuder, T., Bergman, J. L.
Almaso. K., & Brown, R. (1992). Beyond direct explanation: Instruction of
reading comprehension strategies. The Elementary School Journal, 92(5), 513
-555.
This article focuses on the potential
of transactional strategies instruction with students to learn the regular
elementary content. In a quantitative study, one group learned a number of
strategic approaches and was taught to apply them. The control group was taught
in the conventional manner. The experiment group demonstrated an increase of
understanding by the results on the memory tests (recall of text and
standardized comprehension tests). The findings of the study showed how
individuals use strategies to promote memory and comprehension text. Some
insights on how to teach strategies, how to promote the transfer and use of strategies
resulted from this study. These strategies include summarization, thinking
aloud, prior knowledge, and questioning, and through student-teacher
interaction students are guided to use their strategies.
The implications from this study
demonstrated how direct instruction and modeling of reading strategies
increases comprehension and memory skills. Transactional strategies instruction
enables readers to transfer their learned skills and strategies to a variety of
genres to gain understanding, and allows learners to become proficient readers.
Pressley, M. & Wharton-McDonald, R. (1995). Developing reading
comprehension through instruction. Science Research Associates, 26(3), 263 –
264. Retrieved February 1, 2203, from www. nasponline.org.
The authors describe three
major approaches of reading instruction to develop reading comprehension;
reciprocal teaching, direct explanation and transactional strategies
instruction. In a qualitative study, Pressley and Wharton-McDonald look at
these major instructional approaches and past research. Based on their
examinations of these approaches, Pressley and his colleagues found that all
methods teach comprehension strategies, but contain variations in practices.
Transactional strategies instruction has a positive effect on comprehension
with primary and secondary students. The transactional strategies instruction
is flexible and engaging, and active readers comprehend better than less active
readers.
The implications from this
study are transactional strategies instruction is flexible, leads to the
development of variety of comprehension strategies, and promotes the
interaction with the text for primary and secondary students.
Reading instruction: a historical timeline. (1997). Infobrief (10). (1997, September).
Retrieved from January 18, 2003, from www.ascd.org
This historical study looks
at reading instruction through a beginning in the 1700’s through the 1990’s. Educators
questioned phonetic based reading instruction in the 1800’s. Throughout the
timeline, research shifts from phonic based instruction to the whole language
approach. These approaches continue to be under debate today, but the balanced
approach has also come up on the horizon.
The implication showed that the
shifts of literacy approaches, but transactional strategies instruction (TSI)
focuses on decoding skills and comprehension strategies while using meaningful
context material. Transactional strategies instruction can balance literacy
curriculum and the debate.
Rodulfo, Julius (1999). Open doorways to reading: Teach children the
way they learn. Classroom Leadership,
3(2). Retrieved January 18, 2003, from www. ascd.org.
This narrative study stressed the
importance of teaching children in the ways they learn. If a child is not successful
with a particular reading program then the teaching approach needs to be
altered to suit individual’s needs. This article named five strands of learning
styles: environmental, emotional sociological physiological, and psychological
(Dunn and Dunn). Within these learning styles, there are twenty-one elements
that can affect a person’s learning along with the biological processing style.
The implications of this study are
that the importance of teaching children in their own styles fosters flexibility
and individuality, which aligns with the transactional strategies approach.
Rosenblatt, L. M. (1994). The transactional theory of reading and
writing. In R. Ruddell, M. Ruddell, & H. Singer, (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading.
4th edition. (pp. 1057 -1092). Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
In this article, Rosenblatt looks at
the process of reading, and how it involves the mind and emotions of the
reader. After a decade of reader observations, the transactional theory
emerged. The results from these qualitative studies found that reading cannot
be treated as separate skill or activity, but rather it should center on
thinking, reading and writing, and continuously transacts with their
environment.
Rosenblatt states the
reading continuum is determined by the attention on what is being read. The
efferent stance is focused on ideas to be used after the reading. The aesthetic
stance is centered on the feelings during the reading. Assessments can give
clear examples of efferent stance, but are limited when analyzing aesthetic
stance toward reading.
The implication from this study is
that reading cannot be treated as a separate activity, but is a transaction
between the reader and the text. The continuous process of involving the mind
and emotions during reading resulted in the transactional theory. This is the
core of the transactional strategies instruction.
Ruddell, R. B. & Ruddell, M. R.
(1994). Language acquisition and literacy processes. In R. Ruddell, M.
Ruddell,& H. Singer, (Eds.), Theoretical
models and processes of reading. 4th edition. (pp. 83 -103).
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
This essay examines language
development and its relationship to literacy processes. Children construct
rules about language through adult models. By examining the relationships of
home and community to language development through various qualitative studies,
Ruddell and Ruddell concluded that children are active participants in their
language development, have an understanding of how language works, and how
children use literate behaviors before entering school. Children’s language and
world knowledge, models, and the environment influence language development. By
linking home and community language with school language children has a greater
chance for success. Reading is a complex process, so a multiple of strategies
must be learned to effectively interact with text.
The implications from this study are
that children, who are active in language development, have an understanding of
how language works tend to be successful in school. Therefore, children that
have understanding comprehension strategies and interact with reading will be
successful in their development of literacy.
Ruddell, R. B. & Unrau, N. J., (1994). Reading as a
meaning-construction process: The reader, the text and the teacher. In R.
Ruddell, M. Ruddell, & H. Singer, (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading. 4th edition.
(pp. 1057 -1092). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
The central purpose of this article
is to examine the nature of reading and the comprehension of language through a
qualitative study. Unrau’s 11th grade English class composed of mostly
college bound students participated in the meaning negotiation process during
the reading of The Laughing Man by Salinger. A teacher’s log,
observational notes, and photocopies of students’ logs were photocopied during
several days of instruction. This model takes a constructist point of view, in
which readers engage prior beliefs and knowledge to construct meaning to the
text. Also, to construct meaning from text, a reader is influenced by the
social dimension of the classroom and by the teacher.
The implication of this
study is that readers engage prior knowledge to construct meaning form text.
Readers have an interactive role, which involves the emotions and the minds of
the readers. Transactional strategies instruction engages the readers’ mind and
emotions to construct meaning.
Schuder, T. (1993). The genesis of transactional strategies instruction
in a reading program for at-risk students. The
Elementary School Journal, 94(2), 183 – 201.
This qualitative study takes
place in Rockville, Maryland in a large public school system and focused on
grades K–8 at-risk students. The Student Achieving Independent Learning (SAIL)
is a cognitive-based curriculum developed to replace the current remedial
reading programs for at-risk students. SAIL is considered an accelerated
program to advance comprehension thinking and learning strategies that allow
better use of skills that have been acquired.
Researchers provided teachers with Generic Objectives/Lesson Plan
to specify what teachers needed to cover in their instruction, and a Required
Forms Chart to record titles and content of instruction in reading and language
arts.
This study emphasized
developing and using background knowledge, setting a purpose for reading and
understanding structure, to develop thinking skills and apply new information
to new situations. Instruction begins with direct teaching of reading
strategies then evolves into transaction strategies. All elementary, middle school, and special education teachers
implemented SAIL to enrich listening, thinking, speaking, reading and writing
skills of at-risk students. The researcher videotaped classrooms to investigate
modeling, coaching, and monitoring of the strategies–based instruction.
Teachers’ reports to standardized achievement test results, all supported SAIL
reading program instruction as being beneficial to remediate at-risk students.
The implications of the
study are that at-risk remedial reading students can benefit from transactional
strategies instruction. The transactional strategies instruction program called
SAIL is considered to be an accelerated program, rather than a remedial
program. TSI develops background knowledge, setting a purpose for reading,
understand reading structure, and develop thinking skills and how to apply
learned strategies to new situations to enrich literacy development. This
information supports TSI approach enables an acclimated reader become a
proficient reader.
Tierney, R. J. & Pearson, P. D. (1994). Learning to learn from
text: A framework for improving classroom practice. In R. Ruddell, M. Ruddell, & H. Singer, (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading.
4th edition. (pp.496 -513). Newark, DE: International Reading
Association.
The
purpose of the article is to show that reading is an interactive process in
which readers actively engage in text. Transactional strategies such as using
prior knowledge, questioning, monitor their reading, and discriminate new
knowledge from old will increase learning from content material. Through a
qualitative study the researchers examined instructional practices of reading
comprehension, the researchers developed guidelines for reading: preparing to
read, guiding reader- text interaction, utilizing post-reading comprehension,
and learning when preparing to read. Prior knowledge has a strong influence on
understanding and the reader must continue to have their schema engaged while
reading. Without teacher attention and support, students will not be able to
apply learned strategies across a genre of material.
The implication of this study was to
show that reading is an interactive process, which actively engages the
emotions and the mind of the reader. In order for students to generalize
learned strategies teachers must continuously support strategic learning. This
is embedded in the TSI approach. The transactional strategies instruction uses
prior knowledge, engages the reader to monitor their own reading, sets a
purpose for reading, and these principles are embedded in this study.
Tinzmann, M.B., Jones, B. F., Fennimore, T. F., Bakker, J. Fine, C.,
& Pierce, J. (1990). What is the collaborative classroom? North Central
Regional Education Laboratory, Oak Brook. Retrieved February 1, 2003, from
www.ncrel.org
This essay looks at Vygotsky’s
theories about dialogue and scaffolding in relation to classroom instruction.
The hypothesis stated that natural dialogue occurring outside of school is
promoting learning so it should foster higher-level interactive learning. In
Joliet West High School, 37% of the freshman class failed one or more classes
and had a high rate of discipline problems.
In a single subject design,
the freshmen were placed in small heterogeneous groups to develop cooperative
learning skills. They were taught how to set goals, monitor their progress, and
share prior knowledge as well as responsibility. Cooperative learning
techniques included the area of discipline by having student groups being
trained in mediation and arbitration. In a period of three years Joliet’s
freshman class has shown a 20% increase in grades and discipline problems have
decreased significantly. Teachers stated that students enjoy working together
and are forming their own groups to study together. The Joliet West High School
saw improved learning social skills and self-esteem through cooperative
learning.
The implication of this study is that
literacy development can take place for at-risk students by teaching them to
set a purpose for reading, monitor reading, and by developing prior knowledge.
TSI has these elements rooted in its approach to literacy development.
U. S. National Reading Panel Report. (n.d.), Comprehension (chap. 4).
Retrieved January 18, 2003, from www.reading.org
The National Reading Panel found
evidence from four studies which dealt with normal readers that teaching
reading comprehension leads to: 1) improved awareness of strategies, 2)
improved comprehension, and 3) improved scores on standardized tests. In a 1992
study, 80% of TSI students demonstrated gains on reading comprehension
subtests. The total gain was not reported. From the four studies, the general
consensus was students involved in high level of engagement during reading
demonstrate positive effects in comprehension.
From this study, teaching of reading
comprehension demonstrated gains in the area of comprehension, as well as the
improved awareness of reading strategies. Both of these areas are significant
in TSI. Transactional strategies instruction focuses on the continuous reading
process by developing skills and strategies with flexibility for individual
learning styles.
Williams, J. P. (2000). Strategic processing of text: Improving reading
comprehension of students with learning disabilities. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. 599)
This digest examines the comprehension
problems of students with learning disabilities. Although students with learning disabilities may have the ability
to process information, they may not have the awareness of basic strategies
that good readers use to control and manage their own cognitive performance
successfully. The qualitative study summarized research that looked at how
students can improve their strategic processing of narrative and expository
text.
One of the strategies
discussed was Pressley’s transactional strategies instruction and how it has
enabled teachers to instruct comprehension strategies in a flexible manner.
This type of instruction requires substantial effort and commitment from
teachers to develop students’ ability to control and manage his/her own
cognitive processing to reflect and evaluate one’s performance. A main concern
was that student performance declined after teacher guidance or support has
been removed. It concluded that students’ ability to transfer the skills taught
is often small and sometimes difficult to achieve.
This article was based on Improving Reading Comprehension for Children
with Learning Disabilities by Russell Gersten, Joanna Williams, Lynn Fuchs
and Scott Baker (1998) and was funded by the Office of Special Education
Programs, United States Department of Education.
The implications from this
study are children with learning disabilities can be instructed with the
flexible transactional strategies approach to increase comprehension. Another
factor found in this study was that a substantial amount of effort and
commitment from teachers is needed to develop strategic processing.
Wulf-McGrath, R. (2000). Making the difference with reading
instruction. Classroom Leadership,
4(1) Retrieved January 18, 2003, from www.ascd.org
This narrative study presents the
issue of educators continuously trying to meet the needs of their students. The
reader’s workshop is used to need the needs of 2nd and 3rd
grade students. This format has three parts: mini-lesson, activity period and
sharing time. The mini-lesson lasts from five to fifteen minutes and instructs
students on reading strategies and skills as well as informing students of
workshop procedures. Modeling is the primary tool used during the activity
period to enhance reading and responding to text. Conferences are done in this
segment, too. Lastly, sharing time allows for group listening and active
participation to what class members have read. Several components of
interactive reading instruction are intertwined in the readers’ workshop approach,
such as summarization, predictions, and prior knowledge.
Wulf-McGrath’s students are in a multi-class of 2nd and
3rd graders with reading levels ranging from 1st to 6th
grade. Teacher observations, reading logs are rated according to a rubric, and
reading inventory are done twice a year was used as the assessment of reading
skills and strategies. Even though this class is multi-leveled the students are
given strategic tools and opportunities to read at their level for success and
pleasure.
The implications from this study are
modeling is a key tool to instructing skills and strategies as well as building
prior knowledge to enhance literacy. Another important feature of this study,
learners at different reading stages and are succeeding at their level.
Yopp, H. K. & Singer, H. (1994). Toward and interactive reading
instruction model: Explanation activation of linguistic awareness and
metalinguistic ability in learning to read. In R. Ruddell, M. Ruddell, & H.
Singer, (Eds.), Theoretical models and
processes of reading. 4th edition. (pp. 381 – 390). Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
The purpose of this qualitative study
is to test the theory of interactive reading instructional model. The model
demonstrates an active teacher role in reader–task interaction, and learners
will be more successful when provided with assistance from the teacher with
metalinguistic and linguistic demands.
In California, thirty-five kindergarten children with diverse
backgrounds were selected for this study. Prior to the experiment, forty
children were tested on their knowledge of sound-symbol relationships, but only
thirty-five were chosen. First, the children were to segment phonemes by
tapping the number of sounds (up to three sounds), and given a score for
correct responses. Researchers classified responses in three categories; Chance: one standard deviation of
possible correct 0 -19, Emerging
Segmentation Ability: one standard deviation above chance up to the 3rd
standard deviation, 20 -30 items correct and Strong Segmentation Ability beyond the standard deviation with
approximately 75% or more of the items correct. Next, small groups received
instruction on sounding and blending consonant- vowel-consonant words, then two
types of tests were given. The first test of reading consonant- vowel-consonant
words without teacher assistance, and second test was given with teacher
assistance.
The results showed children
were able to sound out and blend more words when given metalinguistic and
linguistic assistance than the children who were asked to independently. From
this study it was concluded that children with strong phoneme-segmentation
ability are most successful in sounding and blending words, and beginning
readers are more successful when receiving assistance with linguistic and
metalinguistic awareness.
The implications from this study are
interactive reading and teacher modeling increases success in literacy.
Transactional strategies instruction incorporates decoding skills, which this
study concluded that children with phoneme awareness are successful in reading.
Sharon R. Dulin
