Research Project in Reciprocal Teaching
Review of Research
Problem Intervention Design Glossary Home Back
In an era of high stakes testing, accountability, and standards-based educational reform, students must demonstrate proficient reading and writing achievement in a variety of academic disciplines. High school students, particularly the disinterested, disaffected, and disabled students, are expected to perform at acceptable levels in subject areas that usually have caused them difficulty and frustration for several years. It is not unusual to see students who had been eager young learners evolve into teenagers who are neither interested in nor inclined to read. Schools and teachers need to re-engage students with reading and writing (Bean, 2002). What are the best practices and necessary components of an exemplary literacy program for a diverse population of adolescent learners at the secondary level?
What is literacy? The Literacy Dictionary defines literacy as a minimal ability to read and write in a designated language, as well as a mindset or way of thinking about the use of reading and writing in everyday life (Harris & Hodges, 1995). Adolescents use print in a variety of ways throughout their days, whether reading for a class assignment, perusing a magazine, watching a video, surfing the net, or writing a note to a friend. While reading and writing are the dominant modes for gaining and demonstrating knowledge in school, remedial reading programs for adolescents were dismantled during the 1980s and 1990s in many districts.
The Commission on Adolescent Literacy of the International Reading Association issued a position statement in 1999. In it, the Commission urged policy makers and governmental agencies to commit funding for intervention programs, school reform, literacy research, and professional development for teachers (Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw & Rycik, 1999).
Adolescent literacy is a phase in the development of reading proficiency. In the early stages of literacy, children become aware of written language, the arrangement of print on a page, and an awareness of sounds and letters. After students acquire these skills, they progress through the elementary years. They gain word recognition skills, develop vocabulary, acquire comprehension strategies, and then reading to learn strategies. If there is a breakdown or inability to master skills in one of the earlier phases, then reading development is compromised (Moore, et al., 1999; Moats, 2001). Many struggling readers have deficits in phonological processing, fluency, and accuracy. Several researchers have identified these skills as being necessary to become more fluent, more competent, more successful, and more enthusiastic about reading (Ivey, 2002; Lee & Neal, 2000; Lewkowitz, 2000; Pressley, 2000; and Vacca, 2002b).
Reading research in adolescent literacy has focused on the instruction and effectiveness of comprehension strategies. First, a glimpse of models that are used school-wide is given, followed by examples of individual programs and practices. Three models or frameworks that incorporate strategies and theories are briefly described. The Pragmatic Middle School Framework is one model, which includes daily oral reading, guided reading, word study, self-selected reading, and comprehension strategy instruction (Ash, 2002). Another model is the Second Chance program, designed to give struggling students a second chance to learn to read and write. The primary components of this program are vocabulary study, daily reading, and frequent writing. Students are trained to monitor their learning as well (Joyce, Hrycauk, & Calhoun, 2001). Another model is based on the triarchic theory of cognition. Students are taught through the use of analysis, creative writing, and practical applications. Skills and concepts are learned using these three different approaches, thus giving students more opportunity to remember material (Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Jarvin, 2001).
Some schools target specific areas of literacy for improvement. The FAME curriculum and model focuses on vocabulary development during a sixteen-week period, resulting in improved vocabulary and reading comprehension test scores (Curtis & Longo, 2001). The idea of word consciousness, which is the awareness of and interest in words and their meanings, extends vocabulary development beyond definitions (Graves & Watts-Taffe, 2002). Vocabulary instruction is a component of other models, but these two models addressed just vocabulary. Comprehension scores on standardized tests improved from pre-intervention results.
Selection of interesting and appropriate reading materials is another consideration in establishing a literacy program. While textbook use is the dominant source of information in classrooms, literature is being incorporated into subject area classes (Bean, 2000). A wide variety of reading material should be available in secondary classrooms, which would demonstrate to students that reading is important (Ivey, 2002). The use of graphic novels and other high interest materials may engage disaffected readers (Mulholland, 2002; Schwarz, 2001). Opportunities for self-selection of reading matter and recreational reading should be provided with encouragement to read for enjoyment (Bean, 2002).
Special education teachers and reading teachers provide interventions for individuals or small groups in tutorial or pull out programs is another finding. The focus of these types of programs is to increase fluency, improve vocabulary, and build a repertoire of comprehension strategies (Lee & Neal, 2000; Lewkowitz, 2000;Rothenberg & Watts, 2000). Students will transfer their skills and strategies to other settings once they have practiced sufficiently and gained confidence. One difficulty faced in secondary schools is the emotional and maturational issues of adolescents. Many hide their reading difficulties behind facades of defiance, disinterest, and misbehavior (Brozo, 2000). The practice of repeated reading, although developed with a special education population and originally utilized with elementary students, can be incorporated into secondary tutorial settings (Samuels, 2002).
Some students don’t progress in the acquisition of reading skills as readily as others, or they mask their difficulties. Some students will require intensive individual intervention, which may not be available in secondary schools unless the students have been identified with a disability and are eligible for special education services. Teachers or reading tutors provide individual reading instruction to students after school and during the summer as well as within the school day (Morris, Ervin, & Conrad, 2000). Improvement in word recognition skills, fluency, and comprehension may take several years to achieve. Students who are severely delayed in their reading achievement must be given the time and appropriate instruction to become literate. They also will benefit from the use of new technologies, such as electronic books and books on CD’s, to gain access to curriculum materials that they can’t read (Boyle, et al., 2002; Cavanaugh, 2002).
Research concerning special education populations in mainstream reading publications is limited, but the conclusions drawn by a few researchers have major implications. Reading research focuses on the big picture of literacy development for all students. Leaders in the reading field accord minimal recognition to learning and/or reading disabilities. Allington (2002) suggests re-conceptualizing the areas of learning disabilities and reading difficulties. He suggests that learning disabilities would be part of a reading continuum. Students who have difficulty learning to read or have been identified with a learning disability would be placed on this continuum. With proper instruction, these students would progress along the continuum. He does not consider the ramifications if students fail to progress. This gulf between special education and reading education will need to be addressed for the benefit of all learners as each field has much to contribute (Klenk & Kibby, 2000; Ysseldyke, Algozzine & Thurlow, 2000).
The final component of an effective literacy program concerns professional development. Content area teachers need training in how to teach comprehension strategies, vocabulary building strategies, and effective writing strategies, that are specific to their subject matter. Teachers who may be assigned to teach basic skills- type classes need training to teach those essential literacy skills, especially if there is no reading specialist available (Barry, 2000; Ivey, 2000; and Williams, 2002).
Much of the research on comprehension strategies is from individual teachers who have conducted studies with their own classes. Strategies for improved comprehension fall into three categories: pre-reading, during reading, and post- reading. Pre-reading strategy instruction focuses on activating prior knowledge, identifying the purpose for reading, understanding the structure and organization of text, and understanding the vocabulary. Strategies to use while reading are questioning, clarifying, and note-taking. Post-reading strategies include identifying the author’s purpose and summarizing (Flood & Lapp, 2000; Kiddey & Waring, 2001; Mulholland, 2002; and Pressley, 2002).
Who should teach comprehension strategies? Findings suggest that content area teachers should teach reading strategies that are pertinent and useful for that discipline (D’Arcangelo, 2002). Social studies teachers teach students how to read and write as historians. Science and mathematics teachers teach students reading and writing strategies that are useful to scientists and mathematicians (Vacca, 2002b). From the literature reviewed, there are many teachers who are teaching various strategies to engage adolescents in reading. They struggle to meet the needs of a secondary population with a wide range of reading abilities in their classes.
Interconnected with comprehension strategy instruction are the instructional strategies or practices employed by teachers. Some research-based practices that have been replicated are: reciprocal teaching, guided reading, writing to learn, use of K-W-L and other graphic organizers, modeling or think alouds, direct instruction, and scaffolding (D’Arcangelo, 2002; Duke & Pearson, 2002; Pressley, 2000). Other practices have been effective for specific individual situations, but could be adapted to new situations (Agnew, 2000; Green, 2000; Salembier, 1999). These teacher-developed strategies are based on metacognitive theory, which is an awareness that what one is reading makes sense by monitoring one’s comprehension (Harris & Hodges, 1995). Even as students assess their own comprehension, teachers must use formal and informal assessments to inform their practice (Moore, et al., 1999).
Reciprocal teaching is a set of strategies, which incorporates the pre-reading, during reading and post-reading strategies into its four components. Teachers model the strategies, guide students while they practice and monitor the students for independence in the use of the strategies. There are many variations of reciprocal teaching as teachers have adapted instruction to fit the needs of their students (Mullholland, 2002; Vacca, 2002).
Reciprocal teaching can benefit students across grade levels, across reading proficiencies and English language proficiency. Students who are good decoders but exhibit poor comprehension were the original targets of the strategy, but the strategy has been used with students who are poor decoders as well. They may read along with the teacher or another student who reads the passage aloud. Students with English language issues may use a passage to improve their English language acquisition as well as comprehension (Mayfield, D. et al., 1995).
In summary, an exemplary literacy model for a diverse population of adolescent learners at the secondary level would be based on developmental stages and cognitive theory. Components would include word recognition skills, fluency practice, vocabulary acquisition, writing, and strategies to demonstrate comprehension. Understanding would be shown as students analyze, create, and apply new knowledge. Learning will be enhanced by expert instructional practices of content area teachers, reading specialists, and special education personnel. Another important component is the selection of reading materials that is interesting and appropriate for a range of reading levels. Assistive technologies also have a role in the development of literacy. Judicious inclusion of large group, small group, and individual instruction to ensure the mastery of skills and strategies for all students is important. The final component is assessment, which confirms our practices and informs future instruction and professional development. Once a literacy program is established, it should constantly evolve, not remain static. As time and knowledge change, so should our concepts of literacy and its effective practices.