Literature Review

  RESEARCH  DATABASE

 What are the experiences in oral language that are needed prior to learning to read?

Au, K. H. (2000). Literacy instruction for young children of diverse backgrounds. In D. S  Strickland & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Beginning reading and writing, (pp. 35-39). New York, NY: Teacher’s College Press.

     Teachers need to consider the type of literacy experiences they provide for children in the classroom. This is especially significant if teachers want children of diverse backgrounds to apply skills when they read and write. The study looked at how literacy instruction (sound/symbol relationship) was taught to children of diverse backgrounds.     

     The subjects of the study were a group of African-American and white Appalachian kindergarten and first grade children from low income families. Some of the children were in classrooms with skills based instruction, including a strong sound/symbol relationship and practice of skills in workbooks. The other children were in classrooms with whole language instruction, including periods of reading and writing , and individual and small group instruction.  

     The results indicate that the children who received skills instruction applied their knowledge when completing workbook pages, but not during actual reading and writing. The children who received whole language instruction applied their knowledge when they read and wrote with scaffolding from the teacher.      

 The implication for this study is that any approach can be strengthened if children are encouraged and supported through scaffolding by the teacher, not just to practice skills but also to apply the skills to “real” reading and writing.

Ball, E.W., & Blachman, B.A. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten  make a difference in early word recognition and developmental spelling?  Reading Research Quarterly, XXVI/1, 49-64.

     Phoneme awareness training in kindergarten has an effect on later reading progress. This study looks at the effects of phoneme segmentation and instruction in letter names and their sounds on kindergarten children’s reading and spelling skills.

     Ninety students from three urban public schools in the U.S. were randomly assigned to one of three groups. The first group received training in segmenting words into phonemes. The second group received only training in letter names and their sounds. The third group received no intervention. 

     The results indicate that phoneme awareness training along with training in associating the phonemic segments to alphabet letters, significantly improved the early reading and spelling skills of the children in the phoneme awareness group. Instruction in letter names and sounds alone did not significantly improve the segmentation skills, the early reading skills, or the spelling skills of the children who were involved in the language activities group compared with the control group.  

     The implication of the study is that teachers need to provide early phoneme awareness training, especially to students with poor segmentation skills.

Burgess, S. Shared reading correlates of early reading skills. Retrieved February 27,2003, from  www.readingonline.org/articles/burgess/index.htm

      Children enter school with varying degrees of experiences in oral language skills, and phonological skills. Among the reasons for the differences are the home literacy environment, and the preschool (or lack of) experiences. The purpose of the study is to determine if exposing preschool age children to a home literacy environment rich in literacy and language activities would make a difference in their preparedness for reading instruction in school. 

     The relations between shared reading, oral language, and phonological sensitivity were examined in 115 four-and-five-year old children from day care centers serving middle –income families. Information about the home language environments was obtained by a survey completed by parents. Test administration for individual children was conducted over two to four sessions within a two week period. Children completed two standardized tests of oral language and four tests of phonological sensitivity, including a rhyme oddity detection task, an alliteration oddity detection task, a blending task, and an  elision task.

     Descriptive statistics for age environment were gathered. Correlations between home ,literacy environments and measures of oral language and phonological sensitivity were also presented. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine if the extent to which individual differences in the preschool home literacy environment explained individual differences in the measures of oral language and phonological sensitivity. Separate sets of regression analysis were conducted for oral language and phonological sensitivity.

     The study highlights the importance of early and sustained shared reading experiences in the development of oral language and phonological sensitivity in young children. The study shows that early exposure to literacy in the form of shared reading and discussion of material read, has a positive impact on educational and developmental outcomes. These experiences do provide children with additional preparedness for beginning to read in the areas of comprehension, listening skills, phonological sensitivity, and letter knowledge

Burgess, S.R., Hecht, S. A., & Lonigan, C. L. (2002). Relations of the home literacy environment (HLE) to the development of  reading-related abilities: A one year longitudinal study. Reading Research Quarterly, 37 (4), 408-426.

     The home literacy environment has an effect on a number of literacy development outcomes. This study looks at the relations of six different conceptualizations of the HLE to oral language, phonological sensitivity, and early literacy development.

     The subjects of the study were one hundred and fifteen preschoolers from seven different preschools. The relationship between the HLE and oral language, phonological sensitivity, letter knowledge, and word decoding in the four and five year old children was looked at. HLE information was obtained by way of a survey completed by parents.

     The results indicate that future studies of the HLE and its role in the development of language and literacy skills need to take into consideration the manner in which the home environment is seen. Children enter school differently prepared for formal literacy experiences and these differences often translate into differences in reading achievement. 

Chien, Y. (2000). Starting with predictable stories: EFL children’s oral language and literacy development. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 4628)

     Predictable stories (especially those in big book form) with their rhythm, rhyme and repetitive verse, are enjoyed by preschool and kindergarten children.  This study looks at the effect of using predictable stories as reading materials on the emergent literacy development of English-as-a-Second- Language (ESL) beginners. A child-centered, literature-based curriculum integrating whole language philosophy was developed for a group of kindergarten students at a public high school in Taipei, Taiwan. Daily instruction was given by the researcher for one year.  Five students ages 6 to 7 were chosen on the basis of family background and ability level. The study examined the children’s oral performance, and emergent literacy development. Data collected were from daily observations during instruction and from parent interviews. Data were in the form of videotapes, audiotapes, teaching logs, student portfolios, and miscue analysis.

     Results indicate that predictable storybooks helped ESL children to develop aspects of reading behaviors such as book awareness, direction of print, and print awareness.  Story instruction did not prove to be useful in expanding children’s oral language use in real-life situations.

    The implication of this study is that predictable storybooks in the classroom allow children opportunities to become involved in the story as they read along with the teacher repeating various phrases. Children are provided with opportunities for language development as they enjoy the rhythm and rhyme of the story.

Csak, N. L. B. (2002). “What’s important when you’re six?”-Valuing children’s oral stories. Language Arts 79,6,  88-497.

        Talking is as important as reading and writing in the classroom, and needs to be valued in the same way. The study looks at children’s use of storytelling in the classroom to communicate personal information about events in their student lives.

       Twenty three of the twenty seven children in first grade were the subjects of the study. Data on children who had moved into the program mid year were not included.  The storytelling episodes took place three times a week in the classroom. The teacher circulated throughout the classroom during morning work time and engaged the children in conversations wherever they were working.  Student’s names, dates, topics discussed and anecdotal notes were recorded by the teacher on a clipboard. Data were grouped by filling out a weekly cover sheet that included student’s name, number of opportunities for storytelling, number of absences or passes, and topics discussed. Data were tallied as to whether the storytelling topic occurred in the past, present, or future. Common patterns among storytelling episodes as well as unique elements were noted including repeating, continuation, status (conditions in which children live), cause and effect, building (on the stories of others), media (actual news reports), relating to others, and intent (children planning their own actions).

     The results indicate that children told mostly about events that had just happened, andalmost always put themselves in the stories. The topics the children told about at storytelling time were often the same ones they wrote about in their daily journals.

    The implication of this study is that  providing opportunities for children to talk about what is happening in their lives tells children that adults care about them .Teachers are better able to understand and teach students as a result of such interactions

Fisher, D. (2001). Early language learning with and without music. Reading Horizons, 42 (1), 39-49.

     Music experiences have an effect on the literacy development of children. The study looks at how the use of music in a primary classroom effects the literacy development of bilingual students.

     Students were randomly assigned to one of four classrooms. Two classrooms included music in their program, two did not. Each child was assessed at the beginning of kindergarten and again at the end of first grade. Classroom observations were conducted in two of the classrooms each week. Field note forms were used to create a record of classroom events and conversations.

     The results indicate that students in the two classes that used music as part of the language arts curriculum outperformed those students not exposed to music in the curriculum.

     The implication of this study is that music can be integrated into the curriculum to benefit the literacy development of the students.  Children become involved in their learning in a positive, relaxing learning environment. 

Glover-Miller, M. (1983). Facilitating spontaneous oral language in functional language-delayed kindergarten children using telephone technology. Eric Document Reproduction Service No. 232769.)

     Dramatic play offers opportunities for creative expression and expressive language development. This study describes a language intervention approach using the dramatic play center in a kindergarten.

     The subjects in the study were thirty two language delayed children of multi-ethnic backgrounds.  The purposes of the investigation were: 1. to determine what effect the availability of telephones had on the spontaneous oral language development of language delayed children, 2. to determine if an increase in oral language participation occurred as a result of the intervention, 3. to determine if the children’s language developed.

     The children were assigned to experimental and control groups in the classroom. Children were observed during dramatic play, and their speech was recorded by their teacher and an aide using anecdotal notes. The subjects in the experimental group were free to use the telephones. The subjects in the control group did not use the telephones. To assess oral language output, several measures were used, including mean length of response, mean of five longest sentences. Data were gathered over three months.

     The results indicate that there was an increase in oral language participation, an increase in sentence length, and an increase in mature use of language. A technology based intervention (prop) did have positive results on the oral language of the children in the dramatic play center of the classroom.

     The implication of this study is that the use of props in dramatic play stimulates children’s creative thinking and their oral language. The props act as a stimulus for generating ideas for imaginative play.

Goswami, U., & Mead, F.(1992). Onset and rime awareness and analogies in reading.  Reading Research Quarterly,  XXVII/2, 153-161.

      Measures of rhyme and alliteration are especially strong predictors of reading progress.  This study looks at the relationship among a range of phonological variables, non-phonological variables, and analogies in reading. 

     The subjects in the study were forty-four 6 and 7 year old children. Children were given a series of pretests over two or three sessions to measure initial reading knowledge and vocabulary. They were seen for a number of different experimental sessions which were given a few days apart. Some of the sessions were analogies, some were phonological.

     The results indicate that there seems to be a specific connection between the awareness of linguistic units of the rime and the ability to make connections between spelling sequences that reflect rimes.

     The implication of this study is that oral language activities provide children with opportunities for onset and rime. End analogies are easier to make than beginning analogies, and they develop earlier. Children can make beginning analogies once they have begun to read .

Griffith, P., & Olson, M.W. (1992). Phonemic awareness helps beginning readers break the code. The Reading  Teacher 45(7), 516-523.

     Phonemic awareness requires the ability to attend to a sound in the context of other sounds in a word. This study looked at the effect phonemic awareness training had on the acquisition of spelling ability and word recognition.

     The subjects were preschool children in a private preschool. The experimental group was taught to attend to the phonological structure of language-rhymes, prior to any explicit instruction about the alphabetic writing system. The control group was not provided with the experiences in phonological training.  The data were collected by observations from the researcher.

     The results indicate that the phonological awareness training had a “facilitating” effect on the acquisition of spelling ability in grade one and word recognition and spelling ability in grade two.

     Preschool children enjoy activities with rhymes. By incorporating the rhymes into play activities, the children were provided with readiness instruction in a fun, developmentally appropriate way. The children became actively involved in the activity, which is what needs to happen at this age level. As a result of this activity, the basis for later language learning had been provided. 

Huffine, K., & Ellis, D. (1979). Stories that sing: Stimulating oral language in young children. (ERIC Document  Reproduction Service No. 200942.)

     There exists a link between music, adult/child interaction, language practice, rhythm, repetition, familiarity of content and a child’s oral language development. This study addresses folktales and their adaptation to a variety of oral activities.

      Various folktales were sung to children, followed by open-ended questions. Additional activities accompanied the singing of the folktales including allowing children to find a rhyming word or substitute for a noun or verb in part of the song. Pantomime and dramatization were also included among the activities providing “language practice”. Classroom observations of a class of kindergarten children over the period of a semester were the basis for data collection. 

     The results indicate that continued opportunities for oral language activities including chants and song did increase children’s sense of rhythm, rhyme, and creative expression.

     The implication for this study is that oral language in the form of chants, songs, and text can be used by teachers and parents to assist in the development of language skills.

Kraft, K. C., & Berk, L. E. (1998). Private speech in two preschools: Significance of open-ended activities and  make-believe play. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 3 (4), 110-115.

     Dramatic play activities provide opportunities for the development of children’s oral language. This study looks at the effect that different environments have on the oral language development of the children in the setting.

     Observations of three to five year olds were made during the free choice time in a Montessori program and in a traditional (play oriented) program. Children were observed in “open-ended” activities (fantasy play) and in “closed-ended” tasks (those with predetermined goals). Open-ended activities in the dramatic area of the traditional preschool involved small groups of four or more children. Activities in the Montessori environment involved two or three children.

     Results of the observations indicate that the open-ended activities-associative play showed greater self-directed language among the children in the traditional preschool. Diminished “make-believe” play along with activities with greater teacher involvement showed a lower incidence of  oral (language ) interactions among the children in the Montessori program . Oral language in the traditional program was described as more imaginative, compared to the oral interactions in the Montessori program which were directed to the task the children were involved in. 

     The implication of this study is that dramatic play allows children to develop their creativity and imagination through fantasy. Three to five year old children are very social individuals who need environments which allow for creative expression. The various learning environments available to children provide for different types of learning as well as different opportunities for oral language development.

Martinez, M., & Teale, W. H. ( 1988). Reading in a kindergarten classroom library.The Reading Teacher, 2, 568-572. Teachers foster voluntary reading by offering a variety of activities to children in many different ways. This study looks at what kindergarten children do with books in the classroom library.

     Subjects were a group of kindergarteners working in their classroom library. The children were observed twice weekly for eight weeks. They were observed in seven different ways. The classroom was organized around centers. Five to seven children were observed in the classroom library at one time. The children were encouraged to “read” books to themselves, as well as to others. Three people observed the activity in the library.  Observers recorded the title of each book read by the child, the ways in which the child used the book, and the social interaction between the child and classmates. Each book in the library was described in three ways, including unfamiliar, familiar, and very familiar. Books were also described as predictable, and non-predictable. Books were either over sized (big books) or average size.

     The results indicate that children’s familiarity with stories did affect what they did with the stories. Children spent more time browsing through unfamiliar books than they did through familiar books. They appeared to engage in more sophisticated behaviors with familiar and very familiar books as indicated by the amount of time they spent in emergent readings of books the teacher had previously read to them. Emergent reading was more common when the children selected books with predictable structures. The most frequent uses of non-predictable books were browsing and silently studying the book They were more likely to engage in emergent readings of the stories or to act them out. When they chose average size books, they were more likely to browse or silent study them. 

     The implication of this study is that kindergarten is not too early to begin to develop good reading habits. Consideration of the types of books placed in the classroom library and the structure of the read aloud program help to promote children’s interactions with books. Such interactions promote the development of their oral language skills. 

 Morrow, L. M. (1982). Relationships between literature programs, library corner designs and children’s use of literature. Journal of Educational Research, 75 (6), 339- 339-344.

     A total literature program includes regularly prepared literacy activities, a time when children can have the opportunity to enjoy books, and a well developed classroom library corner. These activities provide opportunities for oral language development.  This study looks at the physical characteristics and components of library corners in early childhood classrooms, and describes the types of literature activities within these classrooms.

     The sample consisted of thirty nursery rooms, thirty seven kindergartens, thirty two first grades and thirty four second grades all of whom were observed for physical characteristics of library corners. All classrooms were in public school districts. The observers were student teachers enrolled in the Early Childhood Education Program at Douglas College.  The duration of the study was eight weeks. Classrooms were in suburban as well as urban areas of New Jersey. Two questionnaires were designed. The first questionnaire addressed the physical characteristics and components of the library corners, and the second questionnaire concerned the teacher’s use of literature in the classroom. In addition to the questionnaires, the observers also recorded the number of children using literature during free-play time on four different days, in four different weeks. Four observations were conducted each of these days approximately five to ten minutes apart depending on the length of the free-play period (generally 30-40 minutes). Literature use was defined as reading or looking at books, using one of the literature props (including roll movie, felt board stories, puppets, listening to a recorded story, or enacting a story that had been read in class). Cooperating teachers checked for observer reliability during one free-play observation period .At this time, the two observers agreed on the number of children using literature.

     The results indicate that features such as puppets, roll movies, and felt boards were evident in only 12% of the rooms observed. The number of students using literature at free-play across the sample of rooms ranged from 0 to 13. Teacher’s use of literature included reading stories to children, story telling, use of flannel board and puppets, and discussing literature with the class. Teachers read an average of twelve stories over a four week period. Teacher’s told stories an average of three times during the four weeks. They used flannel boards and puppets and other props an average of 0.5 times. Children had an opportunity to tell stories to each other an average of 1.1 times and other creative techniques 0.3 times. Stories were discussed 6.5 times during the period. Teachers directed the children to use the library corner 2.5% of the time.

     The implication of this study is that there needs to be more opportunities for children to interact with literacy activities. Children need hands on experiences with the many opportunities which allow for oral language development including puppets, felt boards and others. Enhancing classroom library corners is one way to present oral language activities to children.

Morrow, L. M. (1985). Retelling stories: A strategy for improving children’s  comprehension, concept of story structure, and oral language complexity (Electronic version). The Elementary School Journal, 85, 647-661.

     Retelling a story provides interaction between teller and listener, and provides for participation in literature. This study looks at whether guided practice in retelling stories over a period of time would improve children’s ability to answer comprehension questions about the story.

     A sample of four public kindergarten classes with an average of fifteen children each was observed. Twenty five girls and thirty four boys participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups. Pre and post tests were devised for comprehension. Each comprehension test included five questions about the story including setting, theme, plot episodes, and resolution, and five more “traditional” comprehension questions including literal, inferential and critical thinking . The same picture story books were used for both groups. After the story was read and questions were asked, the children in the control group were asked to draw pictures about the story. The children in the experimental group were asked to retell the story.

     The results indicate that there was a significant improvement in the experimental group over the control group for the total comprehension test scores. The study did support the statement that re-telling is a good opportunity for oral language development.

     The implication of the study is that retelling provides information on the child’s understanding of the story as a whole as well as their understanding of story sequence. It  provides additional oral language opportunities as the child answers comprehension questions after presenting the re-telling.

Morrow, L. M. (1988). Young children’s responses to one-to-one story readings in school settings. Reading Research Quarterly, XXIII/1, 89-105.

     Children who have been read to, have a desire to learn to read, and tend to become successful readers. The type and amount of verbal interaction between adult and child during story reading influences literacy development, and oral language. This study looks at the effects of children’s literacy development as a result of having storybooks read as a regular practice in the classroom. The subjects in the study were from two kindergartens. The subjects in the study in the experimental classroom were read to daily over long periods of time .The subjects in the control group were read to, however not on a daily basis.

     The results indicate that the experimental group scored better on measures of vocabulary, comprehension, and decoding ability than the children in the control group. It is suggested that the type and amount of verbal interaction between adult and child during the reading may influence children’s literacy development.

      The implication of this study is that the amount and type of interaction between adult and child does influence the child’s literacy development, especially their oral language development. When children‘s comments on the story are received with genuine interest, and an accompanying response, children will continue to comment on the story.

Morrow, L. M. (1990).The effects of group-size on interactive storybook reading. Reading Research Quarterly,  XXV/3, 213-229.

     Daily read aloud experiences provide children opportunities to interact with text. This study looks at children’s comprehension of stories and their verbal interactions during storybook readings in groups of varying sizes. Adults read storybooks to 27 kindergarten children in five districts. Three stories read in each of three settings included: one-to-one, small group (3 children per group), and whole group (15 or more children ) . Nine picture storybooks were selected for the story readings. Comprehension questions were constructed for each of the stories as a probed recall measure. There were eight story structure and eight traditional comprehension questions for each story .The third reading in each setting was recorded on audiotape.

Following the session, the audiotape was transcribed.  Transcriptions provided data on the children’s verbal participation in the story readings. Children’s responses during the interactive storybook readings were analyzed according to a coding system. The major categories were focus on story structure, focus on meaning, focus on print, and focus on illustrations.

     The results indicate that on probed and free recall comprehension tests, children who heard stories in the small-group setting performed significantly better than children who heard stories read one-to-one. The children who heard stories read one-to-one, performed significantly better than children who heard stories read to the whole class. Children who heard stories read in a small group or one-to-one generated significantly more comments and questions than children in the whole-class group setting. Reading to children in small groups appeared to offer as much interaction as one-to-one readings and appeared to lead to greater comprehension than whole-class or one-to-one readings. 

     The implication of this study is that many factors including the amount and type of interaction with adult readers influence children’s comprehension of material. The size of a group effects comprehension as well. 

Morrow, L. M. (1991). Promoting literacy during play by designing early childhood classroom environments .The Reading Teacher, 44,  396-402.

       During play, literacy related behaviors such as storytelling attempts at reading and writing, and re-telling of a story can bee seen. Including reading and writing materials in dramatic play areas can encourage children to participate in written and oral language activities. This study looks at whether environmental changes and teacher behaviors would lead to increases in the number of spontaneous literacy behaviors such as pretend reading, book browsing and sharing, and writing during free-play periods.

     One hundred and seventy children in 13 preschools and kindergartens participated in the study.  The preschoolers were 4 and 5 years old, and the kindergarteners were 5 and 6  years old.  Preschool and kindergarten classrooms were randomly assigned to one of four groups. The four groups include: paper, pencil and books with adult guidance group, thematic materials with adult guidance group, thematic materials without adult guidance group, and traditional curriculum control group. Pre-intervention data were collected twice a week for three weeks. Teachers observed and recorded the number of children participating in literacy activities in the dramatic play areas and the types of activities in which they were participating. Four observations were conducted each day 5-7 minutes apart.  After three weeks of collecting baseline data, the physical changes were implemented in the dramatic play areas of the experimental classrooms.

     The results indicate that the number of literacy behaviors shown by the children in the paper, pencil, books with adult supervision group and the dramatic play with adult supervision group were  significantly greater than the number of behaviors shown by children in either the dramatic play without adult guidance group or in the control group.

     The implication of this study is that four, five and six year olds are more likely to be involved in literacy activities during play if the appropriate materials are made available to them. The development of the beginning reading and writing skills is seen as “fun” which is a great motivator for wanting to learn new skills.

Palmer, B.C., Leiste, S. M., James, K. D., & Ellis, S. M. ( 2000). The role of storytelling in effective family literacy programs. Reading Horizons, 41, 2, 93-101.

     The art of storytelling is an effective means for developing language and literacy skills within families.  This study looks at a sample of family literacy programs across the United States to examine the use and effectiveness of storytelling on language development. All of the family literacy programs described in the study attempted to integrate learning into family life in a way that supports the value of the family’s knowledge and culture.

     The Club Familiar de Narracion taught (Hispanic) parents to use flannel boards and puppets to communicate with their children. Reading aloud for pleasure was also stressed. The Navajo Parent/Child Reading Program is encouraged interaction with storytelling in English and Navajo. Re-telling of stories was encouraged as a way for children to share stories with families The Literacy Broadcast Project’s primary goals, aimed at the migrant Hispanic population, was to foster a love off reading. Audio broadcasts involving over 800 children featured storytelling, and reading aloud. The Parent Works Program in Florida operates in two schools. The participants of one school are primarily African American, and participants from the other school are Hispanic. The storytelling component has been successfully incorporated into community field trip. The Tellin’ Stories Project is in the District of Columbia. It emphasizes parents working with other parents from different backgrounds to create school; environments that value all cultures and family traditions.

     The results indicate that storytelling can promote language and literacy development with learners of all ages.

     The implication of this study is that storytelling is a good means for strengthening communication within families. Storytelling is effective in developing language as well as cultural literacy.

Pellegrini, A.D., & Galda, L.(2000). Children’s pretend play and literacy. In D.S. Strickland & L.M. Morrow (Eds.), Beginning reading and writing, (pp58-65). New York , NY: Teacher’s College Press.

     The types of toys children use in play effects their oral language during the activity. The study looks at the effect the use of play props has on the oral language of children during play in a drama corner.

      In one series of settings, pairs of first grade children were observed playing with a same-sex peer with play figures from popular narrative films. In another series of settings, children were read a narrative text and then given “literacy props”, such as pens, paper, and asked to talk, play, and write about the stories.

      More literate language was observed with the literacy props than with the play props. The results indicate that the use of literate language relates to children’s performance on standardized measures of reading.

     The implication of this study is that children’s talk about language is important for early literacy learning.

Remaly, B. (1990). Strategies for increasing the expressive vocabulary of  kindergarten children. (ERIC Document  Reproduction Service No. 332234.)

          Expressive language includes the ability to communicate a message to another individual, as well as the use of language to convey feelings and emotions. This study is a practicum study looking at the expressive language delays of inner-city kindergarten children.

     The subjects were fourteen kindergarten children who showed vocabulary development delays on the Brigance Kindergarten Screening Test. The children participated in oral language classroom sessions and at-home activities that stressed specific vocabulary for mastery. Activities such as discussion of story, and descriptions of objects and pictures in storybooks were included.

     Results indicate increased vocabulary, mean length of utterance. Levels of participation and appropriate speaking behaviors.

     The implication of this study is that discussion of story allows children to participate in the reading. Discussion assists in comprehension of story. It provides opportunities for the development of descriptive oral language as children share their thoughts about character, setting, plot and theme

Schrader, C. T. (1986). The nature and function of pre-kindergarten children’s oral language as it accompanies  their writing process. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 264 585.)

     Oral language and written language develop together. This study looks at the relationship between the two skills. 

     Thirty six pre-kindergarten children from an early childhood education center were the subjects of the study. Data were collected using videotapes as teacher and child worked together in writing centers.  Two videos of four and five year old children were made. 

     The results indicate that children’s oral language did have an effect on directing the written language activity. 

     The implication of this study is that oral language and written language develop together. The discussions provided meaning and guidance to the written work. 

Tancredo, D. (2001). The effects of Breakthrough to Literacy on oral language development at the kindergarten  level. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.452550.)

     The computer is used in many classrooms today beginning in preschool. Children are given opportunities for oral and written language development through the use of the computer in a program entitled “Breakthrough to Literacy”.

     This study looks at the effects the computer software had on children’s oral language and pre-reading skills including rhymes, sound-letter association and letter knowledge. In addition, thinking skill development was observed. Data were collected through observations of the children interactions with the computer program.

     The results indicate that the software provided the children with a strong reading base.  The results also indicate that oral language development and reading skills grew.

     The implication of this study is that the computer is a useful tool in oral and written language development as children are actively involved in learning. 

Thomas, K. F., Rinehart, S.D., & Wampler, S. K. (1992). Oral language, literacy and schooling: Kindergarten years. Reading Horizons, 33, 2, 149-161.

     Teachers of young children need to listen to the children in their classrooms to determine developmental progress in oral language. This study looks at the impact of oral language on young children’s reading and writing.  The article reports the findings from a three year study following four children from a pre kindergarten Head Start program through first grade.

     Four children were identified as the subjects of the study. They demonstrated varying levels of Halliday’s oral language functions. Their use of talk was compared with their understanding and performance of literacy tasks. The observers collected over 36 hours of talk on audio and video tapes of their work in the writing center. In addition, hand tallied accounts from personal participation and observation. The children were ranked as numbers 1,2,3,4 (1 representing full control of all seven functions).

     The results indicate that the subjects with the most developed use of language functions have the best understanding of the writing and reading processes. As oral language function decreases, so does the understanding of the writing and reading processes. 

     The implication of this study is that children who are frequently read to have better oral language development. Also, children who spend more time actively engaged in talk with adults have a heightened sense of language development

Tracey, D. H. (2000). Enhancing literacy growth through home-school connections.  In D.S. Strickland, & L. M.  Morrow (Eds.), Beginning reading and writing  

      One of the most important areas of study in evaluating the effects of children’s home environments on their literacy development is parent-child book reading. This study looks at the relationship between parent-child interactions during storybook reading and children’s oral language development.

     The study observed mothers and children from a low socioeconomic community.  The mothers had been trained in a seven week program designed to stimulate children’s oral language. Techniques such as talking about the pictures in the book before reading (a picture walk), as well as using various questioning strategies before the reading were taught to the mothers. The mothers were encouraged to relate the book to the children’s life as much as possible to generate and sustain discussion of the story. The data were gathered by observations of the parent-child interactions.

     Results indicate that the mothers were able to more than double their children’s production of elicited speech during storybook reading after being trained in the program.  The use of prior knowledge was credited for enhancing children’s interest in the book and for assisting in comprehension.

     The implication of the study is that by tapping prior knowledge children become involved in the story. When children make such connections with an activity, the interest is sustained in the activity. Oral language skills are enhanced as a result of these interactions.    

Tracey, D. H. (2000). Enhancing literacy growth through home-school connections. In  D.S. Strickland, & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Beginning reading and writing, (pp. 46-55). New York, NY: Teacher’s College Press.

     Storymates is a family literacy program that uses shared storybook reading for read –alouds. The study looks at the effect of shared reading on children’s comprehension. This program was piloted in a rural low socioeconomic status, southeastern community.

Students were exposed to the modeling of high- quality read –aloud  books chosen by the teachers, followed by the modeling of comprehension activities re-tellings. Following the reading and follow-up comprehension activities, students practice the activities they observed with a partner in the classroom. Students then take home the books they practiced in the classroom and share them with other children in the same way. During the course of this nine week program, students share at least eighteen books with younger siblings, relatives, and friends at home.

     Analysis of program effectiveness indicates positive outcomes for the student’s comprehension achievement as measured by story re-tellings.

     The implication of this study is that practiced (repeated) reading of material has positive effects on comprehension of the material.

Turner, J., & Paris, S. G. (1995). How literacy tasks influence  children’s motivation for literacy. The Reading Teacher, 48 (8), 662-673.

     The daily hands-on, “developmentally appropriate” literacy tasks that are provided for children prior to learning to read spark their curiosity about reading and motivate them to want to learn to read. The study looks at the development of oral language skills as children collaborate while doing various tasks.

     The study involved twelve classrooms of six year olds (6 integrated language arts and 6 skills based). A total of eighty four children were involved in the study. Children were observed during literacy instruction over five days in each classroom. After observations, the children were interviewed to determine their understanding of and value of the literacy activity. .Daily field notes were also used, as well as, verbatim transcripts of literacy lessons, and descriptions of all the tasks the children completed. Literacy tasks were classified as “open” or “closed”. In open tasks, the children were in control of the products they created as well as the processes they used. Dialogue was encouraged as children worked together during the tasks. There was no “right” answer to the task. Manipulatives for skills such as sound-letter association, picture-letter association were examples of the activities. Closed activities did not give the children the opportunity to make their own decisions. Interaction between the children was minimal or it did not exist at all.

     Results indicate that the tasks that provide children the opportunity to interact with each other and to be involved in constructing meaning about literacy were motivating and meaningful to the children. Tasks that require one correct answer such as paper and pencil activities, or that require children to “circle the correct response (picture), were not seen as meaningful or motivating to the children.

     The implication of this study is that children need to be actively involved in learning in order for the learning to be seen as meaningful. Participation in the activities includes verbal interaction which enhances oral language development.

Wright, T. (1990). Improving oral language skills in kindergarten students through the use of the whole language approach. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.323503.)

     Whole language approach to learning provides opportunities for oral language development through shared reading.

     The study looks at the development of oral language through the use of big books. The instructional plan is based on the Shared Reading Book Experience as one component of  the Whole Language Approach.

     The subjects were ten classes from a rural district. The program emphasized a “whole word” approach to reading. The use of big books was included in the shared reading experience. Using the shared reading approach, children had the opportunity to read and reread books along with the teacher. As a result of the rereading, the children had ample opportunities for oral language development. Following the readings, the class participated in discussions of the big books.  The Test of Language Development –Primary, an oral skills checklist, and a parental log were used to measure the effectiveness of the program.

     Results indicate that exposure to the Whole Language Approach did improve the oral language skills of the group.

     The implication of the study is that repeated readings of text aid in the development of oral language skills.  Children enjoy the repetition of verse, the rhythm and rhyme and want to read and reread the text.

Yaden, D. B., Smolkin, L. B., & Conlon, A. (1989). Preschoolers’ questions about pictures, print conventions, and story text during reading aloud at home. Reading Research Quarterly, 1989, XXIV/2, 188-211.

     Storybooks provide a great deal of information about the way print communicates meaning and represents the sounds of oral language. This study looks at preschoolers unprompted questions during storybook reading with their parents.

     The subjects involved in the study were four boys and three girls ages 3-5 were recorded weekly for one year as they asked a variety of questions about both illustrated and non-illustrated stories.  Questions were about characters and events in the pictures as well as questions about story line, characters’ motives, and word meanings. Printed word forms, letters, authors, book titles, and the act of reading.

     The results indicate that the preschoolers asked the most questions about pictures, followed by questions about story meaning and word meaning.

     The implication of the study is that home storybook reading may have more effect of children’s development of comprehension processes than on their print awareness.

Yawkey, M. L., & Yawkey, T. D. (1979). An investigation of forms of imaginative play on language comprehension in young children .(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 284226.)

     There is a link between dramatic (symbolic) play and language development in early childhood. Dramatic play provides opportunities to build the cognitive and linguistic skills needed by children prior to learning to read.

     The study looks at the effect of symbolic play as a means for increasing language comprehension and facilitating oral language growth. Two aspects of language are addressed-language comprehension and language development.  Independent variables were forms of play –puppet action, body action, imagined action, and no action (control);age and sex. Dependent measures were cloze procedure for comprehension, 10 item measures for language comprehension, and the students’ connected discourse scored t-units for language development. Subjects were 80 five year olds and 80 seven year olds.

     The major findings are:1.on the cloze measure of language comprehension, children in the body action group received significantly higher mean scores than those in the abstract action play  and control groups; 2. on the question measure of language comprehension , five year olds in the puppet action  and body action play groups received significantly higher mean scores than did the five year olds in the abstract action  and play groups; and 3.  on the t-unit measure of language development , the seven year olds received significantly higher mean scores than did the five year olds . There were no significant effects for sex.

     The implication of the study is that dramatic play provides opportunities for oral language development along with creative expression and imagination.

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