Synthesis of Guided Reading
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Synthesis of Understandings and Practices
In
Guided Reading
Let us first agree, what is reading? According to Cunningham & Allington (1999), readers are not just people who can read, they are people who select books that appeal to them and set aside time to read for their own pleasure and information. Can guided reading produce this type of kid? How does Cunningham and Allington's definition of reading align with the ultimate goals of guided reading? What is guided reading anyway?
Specifics cannot be used when defining guided reading. It is an approach to emergent reading instruction, which is receiving much support and hype from educators of all levels, inclusive of elementary and secondary teachers and many administrators. Reading Today (International Reading Association) in the December 2002/January 2003 issue surveyed 25 “literacy leaders” selected from the various geographical areas in the United States, from Canada, and from outside North America. Those surveyed (selected because they have a national or international perspective on literacy), listed guided reading as a “hot” topic for 2003, and go on to rate guided reading as “very hot”, (indicated by at least a 75% positive response) in the area titled “should be hot”. Guided Reading was found to be neither more or less “hot” in 2003 than it was in 2002, and it is not recognized as a “new” topic, according to the survey results.
Most, if not all experts agree, that guided reading is
planned, intended, focused instruction. It
is usually conducted in small group settings. The role of the teacher is to help
students learn more about the reading process (Opitz & Ford, 2001).
Allen (2000) differentiates shared reading from guided reading by
describing their distinct purposes. The
goal of shared reading is a relatively uninterrupted fluent reading of text,
where the goal of guided reading is establishing or reinforcing strategic
processes be interrupting the text at key points.
Definitions of the approach differ in specifics of
technique, group size, group selection and materials, yet all agree that the
ultimate goal is to foster independent readers, and that guided reading is a
means to this end, and not an end itself. “Independent
readers who choose to read” seems to be directly in line with definition from
Cunningham and Allington, stated at the opening of this report. The creation of
“lifelong readers” surfaces in most every text on the topic.
Is Guided
Reading a Whole Language Approach or a Phonics Approach or an appropriate and
comprehensive combination of both?
The philosophy of guided reading closely resembles
Routman's (1997) definition of whole language.
In an article supporting and clarifying the whole language approach as it
compares to the phonics approach Routman states “Whole language advocates
place phonics and skills in the context of reading whole and predictable
texts and view phonics as one of the cueing systems-along with the meaning and
structure of the text.” As
applied to teaching, students would be taught to look at print and ask
themselves; does it look right (graphophonics), does it sound right (syntax),
and does it make sense (semantics)? This understanding is discussed in further
detail in the subsequent section.
A vignette written into the Routman article gives a
much-needed plug for the whole language approach.
The aspects of the story also concur with the underpinnings of guided
reading. A student who had
not been read to as a child could not decipher “upon” in the phrase “once
upon a time”. Without the
experience with books and being read to, he may learn to “sound-out” through
phonics instruction, but with phonics alone, he will never become familiar with,
understand, and enjoy the cadence and rhythms that are so crucial and wonderful,
and found only in storybook language. Reading
for meaning and the use of quality literature is the heart of the whole language
approach to reading instruction (Routman, 1997).
Uncontrived texts, providing all the wonders of story are used also in
guided reading lessons. Guided
reading includes the best elements of both phonics and whole language and
incorporates them with appropriate intensity into a comprehensive combination of
both.
The “Buzz” words- What is an independent reader?
What is reading at an instructional level?
What is Frustrational level?
The independent reader is one who can comprehend, analyze, problem solve, and self monitor as they read, without the support of “a more knowledgeable other”. They are reading texts with an accuracy rate between 95 and 100%. When children are truly reading independently, they are in a level of autonomous functioning, not learning within what is known as “their zone of proximal development”(Vygotsky, 1978). This “zone” is described as “the behaviors beyond a child's level of autonomous functioning but within reach if assistance is provided. Children learn how to perform tasks appropriately within their zone by interacting with more competent and responsive others who provide hints and prompts to the child on an as-needed basis” (Pressley, 2002, p.97). Children learn to read while reading! A clever analogy is that of the child learning to swim. You do not tell the child all about swimming and then throw them into the water. Just as you learn to swim by swimming, you learn to read by reading. Encouraging and perfecting of reading strategies should occur in the context of reading (Biddulph, 2000).
Children reading independently are also able to perform what is called “cross-checking” (Fountas & Pinnell, 1999). Briefly, cross-checking involves an ability to simultaneously check one source of information to another. The reader is checking one cuing system against another. Good independent readers use several sources of cues in an integrated way. Information is gained through the “orchestration” (Opitz & Ford, 2001) of semantics, syntax and graphophonic cues. The intensity of each cuing system is determined “on the run”, and on an “as needed” basis. At the instructional level, guided reading lessons support the learner within the “zone”. The “orchestration” of cuing systems is taught during the reading process. The teacher provides a scaffolding of instruction and support as the learner moves towards independence. Healthy interactions according to Vygotsky are productive conversations between and adult and child that do not demand too much or too little, but rather support the child who is working on new competencies (Pressley, 2002, p.119). The guided reading approach considers and incorporates what Pressley (2002) states on motivation. He claims, “people are most motivated when the goal is not so distant that it cannot be achieved, although achieving it requires some effort. In other terms, it is very motivating to be working at the boundary of one's competence, for when this happens, competence expands.” Marie Clay (1993) terms this “a self-extending” strategy building. Theorists who study human motivation repeatedly reiterate this point. Fountas & Pinnell seem to have expounded on it as they use the term “instructional reading level”. Their definition comes from an analysis of student reading. A “running record” (Clay, 1993) of the oral reading produces an accuracy rate. Students who are reading text with rates of 90-94% accuracy are judged to be reading within their instructional level. This level of text is enough to allow students to practice strategies needed to read the material. It provides just enough challenge to extend the strategies to new heights. Students reading at this “just right” level are better able to combine their use of semantic, syntactic, and graphophonic cues, thus helping them read more effectively. Rates below 90% are considered to be a frustrational reading level. Students reading texts at this level are unable to implement cross-checking strategies (an appropriate orchestration of semantic, syntactic and graphophonic cues). According to Taberski (2000), if texts are too difficult, children are likely to focus too much on figuring out words they don't know and too little on the strategies they need to practice. Even when the strategy is “attending to visual cues (graphophonics, one of three important cuing systems), students can be more effective when they come across fewer, rather than more, unfamiliar words (which can only occur when text is not at a frustrational level). Over reliance on one strategy at the risk of omitting all others is not helpful for the development of skills for the emergent reader. It is also important to recognize the need for discussion of what is read. “When children understand what they're reading, they often comment on the story as they go” (Taberski, 2000, p.55). They can only comment on story when they understand what they are reading! What beginning readers crave are three imperative components of reading instruction, they are; good books, discussion with classmates and the opportunity to relate to their own experiences. The discussion time included in the structure of guided reading lessons provides for the latter two of these important components. Resourceful teachers find creative avenues to obtain quality materials, thus providing for the material component.
Books read at an independent level offer just the right balance of supports and challenges. They allow students to use a wide range of strategies and information sources when they meet new words. Prior knowledge plays an important role, as they determine much of the expectations of information for the reader. This level of cognizance is never attained when students are placed in texts at their frustrational level. Books read need to support their use of background knowledge (semantics) and language structure (syntax), as well as letter-sound relationships. Evidenced by the experience of Sharon Taberski (2000), shown is that students reading at a frustrational level often do not sustain their reading long enough to practice the skills they need to work on. Both Taberski and Fountas & Pinnell believe that matching students with “just right” books allow them to use a variety of information sources and strategies as they read and stay engaged in their reading longer (Taberski, 2000, p.51). “Leveled texts” allow teachers to find that “just right” match for their readers. If teachers support the belief that students can learn more efficiently when texts are within their “zone of proximal development”, then they will match books to kids, via leveled texts. A wonderful analogy for understanding the “why” of leveled texts is given by Taberski (2000), she states, “ You would not get on a “dad size” bike and try to learn to ride. You need a bike that fits you “just right”. The same goes for books. You need to learn to read by reading a book that fits “just right”.
Leveling
as it relates to Motivation
Brophy (1987) states that there are two keys that motivate learning: perception of the possibility of success and perception that the outcome will be valued. In other words the activity must be one where the learners are able to see themselves as successful, or able to do it. If this is not the case, the students will most likely withdraw quickly from the activity. Not only do students need to believe “they can do it” but also they need to see their accomplishments as valued. Students should be allowed to demonstrate their accomplishments and new skills to respected others. When reading experiences are meaningful, purposeful, non-threatening and valued, students will become self-propelled to read!
What is the difference between leveling and readability?
Any reader of the material printed on guided reading will quickly hear of leveling or leveled texts. The procedure for determining difficulty of text has been the readability formulas, in existence since the 1920's. Readability formulas usually give a numerical score to rank books in an order of difficulty. It is an objective approach, as grade correspondence is usually determined by an examination of sentence number, sentence length, and the number of syllables contained in individual words. The objectivity means that two different people or computers using the same formula will get the same score for the same book. Leveling is similar to readability in that it employs various systems for determining the difficulty of books, but it is more subjective, as it takes into account some subjective factors of judgment. “Text support” factors are taken into consideration in leveling, such as the following: Is the content appropriate or familiar to the group? Are the illustrations supportive of the story? Length of words on a page and pages in the text are considered. Does the language include repetitive text or phrases that flow? Background knowledge of the reader as well as an interest factor is taken into account when leveling books. Finally, format is scrutinized, how will the type size, spacing, and page layout affect the readers' understanding? The subjective natures of the judgments used for leveling have directed some experts to recommend the combined use of some leveling considerations with readability formulas (Fry, 2002).
Leveling differs from readability. Consider the following, leveling is used exclusively in the classroom and has a more narrow range. Leveling tends to grade books between kindergarten and grade 6, where readability is used outside the classroom (military training manuals, plain-language laws). Readability has a much wider range of grades (1 through 17), whereas leveling use used primarily in the primary grades. The strength in readability lies in objectivity and consistency earned through formula and numerical scores. Leveling has the strength of taking more factors into account, and for providing finer gradations at the primary levels.
What
are the underpinnings of the method? What
are the areas of agreement? What
are the different guided reading perspectives?
Fountas and Pinnell (1996) discuss the underlying theory of guided
reading. The following is a listing
of what could be considered as salient issues to the theory or underpinnings of
the approach. Opitz and Ford
map out a comprehensive list of common elements of Guided Reading in their text
titled “Reaching Readers” (2001). Their listing of common elements closely
resembles the thoughts of Fountas and Pinnell.
1. All children can learn to read and write. Children should be aware of the teacher's expectations of her students. Opitz & Ford (2001) go on to reiterate that all children have the ability to become literate. They explicitly describe the role of the teacher to be one who determines what the child knows now, and what they need to learn. Skillful teachers of guided reading and literacy in general should be called upon and use high quality demonstrations, modeling, explanations, as well as encouragement in order to bring students to “new heights” (Opitz & Ford 2001).
2. Children learn about written language in an environment that is print rich. Print should be functional and informative, reflecting diversity of language and literacy. Here is a place where views differ. Text selection is quite an important aspect of the guided reading lesson. Authors Cunningham & Allington (1999) state, “All children benefit from large amounts of easy reading coupled with opportunities to read more difficult material”.
Opitz & Ford state that some educators are currently advocating that children who are just learning to read should be reading “decodable” text (Opitz & Ford, 2001, p.46). They describe decodable text as text, which is constructed by using specific letter-sound patterns, as well as high frequency words. Advocates of this choice claim that providing these texts gives children the opportunity to apply phonics skills and learn a store of sight words at the same time. Cunningham (2000) states that there are no studies that support the claim that children learn to read better when the text is restricted to only those words they have been taught to decode. In fact these texts may cause more problems than they solve. If a student is only taught to decode “cat on a mat with a hat” or “pig in a wig doing a jig”, how and where can the reader apply other important cuing systems (semantics and syntax)? Does this type of text convey to young readers that reading is supposed to make sense? Many tend to think not. Routman (2000) says that the language of such texts is distorted and the stories are often uninteresting, leading children away from reading rather than inviting them to it. If the basal text puts meaning second, as it uses controlled vocabulary, syntax becomes unnatural, and therefore, difficult for the reader. Texts that look easy are actually hard! According to Clay (1993), “It is just easier when meaning is constantly accessible”.
Readers must be capable of checking one information source against another, while problem solving for meaning (Clay, 1993). This is supported by Opitz & Ford (2001), as they list common elements of guided reading. These authors explicitly state, “Reading for meaning is the primary goal of guided reading. All instruction is designed to help children construct meaning” (Opitz & Ford, 2001, Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). The opportunity to gain meaning from text is related directly to book selection. Clay (1993) advises that books must offer support. Support is achieved if and when they are rich in meaning that children can access and relate to, and the relationships among words are clear. Fountas and Pinnell (1996) speak of text selection with the analogy “Like a piece of jewelry, each book is selected with care.” Text selection closely resembles text leveling especially when examining and considering specific text characteristics. A text gradient defined by Fountas and Pinnell (2001) is “ascending or descending in a uniform or consistent way, so the levels of a gradient are defined in relation to each other”. Many colleagues choose “benchmark” books to be used as the anchor to leveling other selections. Fountas and Pinnell (1996) suggest the following when selecting books as well as creating a text gradient.
1. Enjoyment, meaning, and interest to children
2. Accuracy and diversity in multicultural representation
3. Breadth of type or genre
4. Depth in the number of titles at each level of difficulty, which allows students to feel confident and successful at a particular level before moving them ahead (much like learning the tricycle well, and feeling secure, before moving to the two wheeler bike and then to the unicycle!).
5. Links across the curriculum (common characters, authors, and settings)
6. Quality of illustrations and their relation to the text
7. Content
8. Length
9. Format
Number of Titles and Grouping of Students:
Number of titles is an area where authors differ in opinion. Several maintain that every child in the group needs to read the same title. Cunningham speaks of using a variety of books on a similar subject.
Cunningham also supports dynamic groupings that are not always homogeneously arranged. “Book clubs” are formed around reading interests (Cunningham, 1999). Others, like Cunningham, believe that children can and should be grouped in a variety of ways based on needs, interests, authors, and genres. Allington (1983,1984) states that students in low-ability groups are often given less time to read, are asked fewer higher order questions, have lower motivation to succeed and negative attitudes toward reading. These students are most likely to remain in low-ability groups throughout the elementary school years. Flexible grouping, therefore, is a necessity. These flexible groups may be based on work habits, social considerations, and knowledge of strategies. “Proficiency groups” are short-term groups of students who share a common strength or a common instructional need. Allen (2000), however, states that grouping for guided reading should be based on observed needs for in-depth strategizing, along with appropriate text selection.
Although small group instruction is generally synonymous with guided reading, there are obviously those who advocate a variety of formats. According to Opitz & Ford, you might begin a lesson with the entire class, and then break into small groups that you guide, only to come back together as a whole class to discuss what was learned (Opitz & Ford, 2001, p.6).
3. Learning is a social process. Students should be given opportunity to work in partnerships, which foster better and deeper understandings. Partnerships allow a child to work with another who may give them new insights into the reading process (Opitz & Ford, 2001). Guided reading provides opportunity for students to talk. A strong introduction to the book activates prior knowledge and provides needed support for the reader, and all while allowing students to talk! Milloy in an NEA Today article (2003) claims “part of what makes a great book fun for adults is talking about it. Kids are no different. In addition to the fun factor, talking facilitates learning. The power of conversation is not underestimated in the guided reading approach. Through guided conversation, used particularly in reading workshop (Fountas and Pinnell, 2001) students are encouraged to connect to books. They learn to critique, contest, and question the text, through genuine talk, reading and writing.
4. Learning is a constructive process. Children learn through active engagement in authentic literacy. They learn to talk by talking, read by reading, and write by writing. To maximize their full reading potential, all children need to be taught by skilled teachers. Teacher demonstrations, modeling, explanations, and encouragement are powerful techniques that can take children to new heights (Opitz & Ford, 2001). Powerful demonstrations are an important part of the learning process (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996). According to Fountas and Pinnell (2001), teachers' high expectations for achievement as well as high level of student engagement are listed as essential characteristics of the reading workshop and the guided reading lessons. However the role of the teacher varies in opinion in guided reading. While some view the teacher as the director of the lesson, others view the teacher as a group member. Teacher role as a leader or as a coach or fluctuating between both roles, is discussed in more detail, in a later section of this synthesis.
5. An organized environment supports the learning process. Have materials at hand. Children need to experience joy and delight as a result of the reading experience. Attractive and interesting materials are a must. We do not only want to teach kids to read, but we also want to teach them to be readers. If reading is a pleasurable experience for children, they will want to repeat the experience.
6. Fountas and Pinnell go on to claim in the same text (1996) that children learn best when they are responsible for their own learning. The goal of good instruction is for students to become self-managed learners who can take over the process for themselves. Specific strategies need to be internalized. A quote from Marie Clay states, “reading is a self-extending process” of acquiring strategy for decoding and comprehending the written word. One strategy needs to be a building block for another. Children need to be metacognitive: knowing the why and how of reading. They need to know how reading works, and why it' “good for them”! Students get a skills workout when they write reviews of what they've learned that week. Routman (1990) suggests teacher-student generated reviews, that not only allow parents to see what their children are learning, but also give ownership for learning to the students themselves. Teacher think-alouds used to demonstrate for students how to effectively monitor their own reading, and how will they use this knowledge in the future further support the metacognitive learner. Supporting the understanding that children need to become self-managed learners, one could use the mental imagery of the Greyhound Bus Company slogan “Leave the driving to us”. Teachers often take the wheel and lead students through predetermined lessons, resembling the slogan, (the teacher is behind the wheel). According to Villaume & Brabham, (2001) the teacher should assume the role of the coach, not the driver, and take “the wheel” at a few carefully thought out moments. Lessons should be planned as to encourage and develop students as independent, strategic, and self-extending readers and learners. Students are in the “drivers seat” as they are encouraged to reflect on what had happened in their heads while reading, and are taught to use comprehension strategies to actively build meaning in thoughtful and probing ways.
7.
The Fountas and Pinnell technique clearly describes specific methods of instruction to be used with emergent and early readers. Teaching the student the art of “Cross-checking”, checking one source of information against another, seems to be the underlining principle. Specific elements characteristic of the successful guided reading lesson are listed below and supported throughout the field.
They are:
-a three-part lesson plan, before, during, and after
· An introduction (including a brief picture walk for emergent readers, using the same language patterns and exact works from the text to get students so familiar with the text that words practically pop out of their mouths while reading (Taberski, 2000).
· Independent reading time, where students are given opportunity to practice learned strategies. While the students are reading the teacher observes reading behaviors to confirm strategy use. Prompts and cues are given to help the students apply their problem-solving strategies. Teacher records observations. Round robin reading does not occur in guided reading (Routman, 2000).
·
Follow-up discussion that includes personal
thoughts and reflections to the reading (although teacher should try to elicit
discussion during all three phases of reading, before, during and after reading.
-determined focal
point of the lesson
-directly teach something specific about reading
-ensure that readers learn how to read different genres
-devote the majority of time to independent reading
-informally assess individual students
-emphasize teaching points (minilessons) such as how to reread to identify an
unknown word
-recognize that comprehension is the essence of reading
-conduct ongoing assessments to determine what children know and what they need
to know. Sentence strips and word
sorting can be used to reinforce strategies taught as well as to assess
students' understanding of concepts.
III.
What do the experts say about guided reading?
Many authors of the topic are explicit to caution readers on the following. Guided Reading is one of several components of a more comprehensive literacy program (Cunningham & Allington, 1999; Opitz & Ford, 2001; Pressley, 2002; Taberski, 2000). A clear analogy is made by Opitz & Ford, “If you think of all the elements of a literacy program as performers on a stage, imagine guided reading stepping forward to sing the lead while the other elements remain in the background to provide the necessary harmony that rounds out the performance”. A “balanced” language arts program, according to Kaufman (2002), includes the following components.
1. Journal writing – independent, students have free choice of topics and write freely about personal events, feelings, or interests. Journal entries are shared with the class to emphasize that what they write is valued and enjoyed.
2. Morning message – Composed together, which is a form of modeled and shared writing. After the message is read aloud, praise points are encouraged such as “I like the way Julie went back and reread because it didn't sound right”. The more children hear this type of language for strategic reading the more able they are to internalize it and to verbalize it to others.
3. Word Wall – Research supports the view that readers decode words by using spelling patterns from the words they know (Adams, 1990). Word sorting is a quick word wall activity that supports the attention of the learner to similar orthographic structures of words.
4. Shared Reading – During a shared reading the teacher is the expert who models the reading process.
5. Guided Reading – Guided reading is a context in which a teacher supports the reader's development of effective strategies for processing novel texts at increasingly challenging levels of difficulty (Fountas & Pinnell, 1996).
·
Assessment in Guided Reading
According to Mooney (1995) students should not be required to justify their reactions to the story until they have had time to think through and assimilate some of their ideas. Children should not be required to follow the reading with an assignment, especially not one predetermined by the teacher. “If there is a prepared activity following every reading, students will try to predict what that activity will be, in order to please the teacher. Guided reading is not asking literal level, preset questions. These kinds of questions may be called “product-oriented”, i.e. ask a question, get an answer, and move on. Although this may be labeled “guiding readers through text”, it is not guided reading. The most helpful way of thinking about guided reading is to see it as bringing readers up to a conscious level of decision making to make sense of a text.
Sometimes the most appropriate response to reading is more reading, and sometimes it is no response at all” (Mooney, 1995). Certainly guided reading lessons should not be concluded with a set of preset comprehension questions, especially if we want to ensure that reading remains a pleasurable option in their daily lives.
Opitz & Ford (2001) caution on over reliance on accuracy scores. Misinterpreting accuracy according to the authors, can lead to inaccurate assumptions about children followed by an inappropriate instructional response. Running Records can deceive teachers if types of miscues are not considered and analyzed carefully and singularly. Students who are encouraged to be independent learners are also led to assess their own skills. Self-reflection of work and skill is an integral component of assessment.
IV.
After thoroughly
investigating the subject, what can be said about guided reading?
Routman (1990) beautifully summarizes the essence of guided reading in a quote taken from her article “Reclaiming the basics” written as a defense of one reading approach over another. In the words of Routman, “We will all continue to teach students who have difficulty learning to read and write, regardless of the method we use. Those kids won't just need phonics to become proficient readers, writers, and thinkers. In order for reading and writing to make sense in their lives, they will need a whole lot more beyond “basic skills”. We need to reach for higher literacy “that goes beyond basic skills and includes enhanced abilities to think critically and creatively; to reason carefully; to inquire systematically into an important matter; to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate information and arguments; and to communicate effectively to a variety of audiences in a variety of forms.”
Guided Reading provides just this while it simultaneously gives the teacher the professional freedom to use intuition and instinct to adjust the intensity of one approach over another according to the particular teaching situation. Students are allowed to become independent thinkers, readers and writers in authentic, as opposed to contrived environments. Such is the type of training that creates “readers” those who choose to read for pleasure and information, since they have been taught to gain meaning from the printed word.
·
Conclusions and Implications
A comprehensive look at guided reading uncovers many commonly accepted understandings and differences in opinions. Investigation into the discipline reveals that there is certainly more than one way to do guided reading. Also found is that techniques are determined by both the students' needs and teachers' styles. A flexible view of guided reading is essential as the teaching focus remains on individual and unique needs of children. Guided Reading is potentially a very powerful approach to the development of literate students. A teacher who understands the basic theoretical perspectives that underpin the approach understands that reading is more than decoding the print; reading is constructing meaning independent and unique to the reader. It is a lifelong process of personal interpretation, analysis, challenge and reaction to the printed word (Buddulph, 2000).
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possible.
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